National Museum of Australia Library

Irish in Australia

The Irish form the largest ethnic minority group in Australia. The literature and research concerning this group is enormous, and only a representative sample can be included in this bibliography.

This bibliography traces the origins of the Irish in Australia, through convict transportation, the exile of political prisoners, and the arrival of free settlers. It attempts to deal with their influence on Australian life in many areas, including politics, the arts, education, and the military. In deference to Irish characteristics and stereotypes, there is consideration of Irish resistance to authority, religious preoccupations, and discrimination. Well-known Irish people are listed under the heading ‘notable or notorious’. The most notorious was probably Ned Kelly, but the literature on that one man is so extensive that listing any here would seem to be superfluous.

Although extensive, this bibliography is necessarily a work in progress, and it is hoped that readers will advise the National Museum of Australia Library of omissions or deficiencies. All such communications should be addressed to National Museum of Australia Library.

Some hyperlinks are to subscription services available in the NMA Library. Readers at NMA can access them directly by clicking on the link. External readers can only do this if their institution also has a subscription to the relevant service.

Compiled by National Museum of Australia Library, October 2007

Contents:

• Arts, Culture and Literature
• Australian Capital Territory
• Bibliographies and References
• Convict Era
• General
• Immigration
• Military Connections
• New South Wales
• Notables and the Notorious
• Politics and Law
• Queensland
• Religion and Education
• Resistance to Authority
• South Australia
• Tasmania
• Victoria
• Western Australia
• Women and Their Influence

Arts, Culture and Literature

Adair, D, 'Conformity, Diversity, and Difference in Antipodean Physical Culture: The Indelible Influence of Immigration, Ethnicity, and Race during the Formative Years of Organized Sport in Australia, c. 1788-1918', Immigrants and Minorities v.17 (1), Mar 1998, pp.14-48. A study of the immigrant and colonial relationships between ethnic groups and sports development in the first 130 years of white settlement in Australia brings to the fore crucial questions of identity, ethnic, national, majority and minority, and shows how an imported sporting culture which celebrated Englishness was mediated and transformed through the immigrant experience. Sport is the vehicle for examining the early history of immigration to Australia, the relationships between and within groups, and the negotiation of separate and shared identities through sport. The study explores the themes of inclusion and exclusion, focusing on the prominent ethnic or racial groupings in colonial Australia, the English, other Britons (Scots, Welsh and Cornish), the Irish (Catholics and Protestants), non-English speaking background (NESB) white immigrants (specifically Germans), and NESB non-whites (Aborigines, Chinese and Pacific Islanders).

Byrnes, G, 'James McAuley's 'On the Western Line' : The Irish-Australian Background', The Australian Journal of Irish Studies v.2 2002, pp.35-47. James McAuley (1917 - 1976) was an Australian poet of Irish descent, the son of a Catholic father and Anglican mother. McAuley converted to Catholicism in 1951 and was active in Australian Labor Party (ALP) politics. This article interprets McAuley's 'On the Western Line', an autobiographical sequence of twelve poems written between 1962 and 1969, as an exploration of McAuley's difficult personal Irish Australian background and his paradoxical relationship with Irish Australia. The Irish Australian theme of the poems in 'On the Western Line' is brought out through frequent references to issues of social and cultural allegiance, mental health and associated behaviours, sectarianism, religion and Catholicism. The sequence traces the evolution of the poet's relationship with his father from puzzled childhood through youthful rebellion to reflective maturity. The Irish element in McAuley's ancestry was presented to him as something of a problem, which it did become in later life.

Byrnes, G, 'The Gaelic League in Australasia, 1893-1993', In Irish-Australian Studies: Papers Delivered at the Seventh Irish-Australian Conference, July 1993, Pelan,R ed. Brisbane (Sydney: Crossing Press, 1994), 243-251 pp. This paper traces the history of the Gaelic League in Australia, beginning with some examples from Catholic publications in the decade preceding the foundation of the Gaelic League. These articles were open to news of the Gaelic Revival and included exchanges of material between Ireland, America, New Zealand and Australia. The League was founded on 31 July 1893 to promote the maintenance of Irish language and culture in Australia. The author takes a brief look at the Sydney Gaelic League's Patrick Pearse Branch founded by Fr Michael Ryan in 1922 which was by far the most successful Australian branch, with its school, monthly journal and annual music festival.

Chetkovich, J, 'The Scattered Re-Gather: Irish Clubs in Perth, Western Australia in the Late Twentieth Century', The Australian Journal of Irish Studies v.1 2001, pp.70-80. Since 1947, Western Australia (WA) has had the highest proportion of Irish born in its population of any Australian State. This article shows how the development of Irish clubs in Perth, WA reflected the changing profile, needs and attitudes of WA's Irish immigrant population in the 1980s and 1990s. The conservative, Nationalist Celtic Club, established in 1902, was the only Irish club until 1950, when the Irish Club was formed to preserve Irish culture and provide a link to the homeland for immigrants who saw themselves largely as exiles. The scene changed in the 1980s as those who were arriving were generally better educated and had a higher propensity to make return visits to Ireland than earlier arrivals. Irish theme pubs and cultural, business and sports groups grew, encompassing a wider breadth of Irish pursuits with a strong social component and an orientation to the present rather than the past.

Cronin, M, ''When the World Soccer Cup is Played on Roller Skates': The Attempt to make Gaelic Games International: The Meath-Australia Matches of 1967-68', Immigrants and Minorities v.17 (1), Mar 1998, pp.170-188. Australian Rules and Gaelic football were developed in the 19th century within the anti-colonial mission of independence. As national sports, they were, and continue to be, important in creating and sustaining national identity and underpinning national cultural difference. Without an international outlet, however, they cannot be a source of the national pride and unity that flows from international competition. In an attempt to overcome this dilemma, efforts were made in the late 1960s to internationalise Gaelic games by promoting competition between the similar codes of Australian rules and Gaelic football. Despite the popularity of a series of Gaelic football matches in Ireland and Australia in 1967 and 1968, the tours did not lead to on-going genuine international competition. The failure of the attempted internationalisation is attributed to difficulties developing an agreed common code and lack of support from the custodians of Australian rules and the Gaelic Athletic Association (GAA).

Devlin-Glass, F, 'A Digression on Orangeism?: Joseph Furphy's Uses for Irish History in 'such is Life'', In Bull,P, et al eds. Ireland and Australia, 1798-1998: Studies in Culture, Identity and Migration, (Sydney: Crossing Press, 2000), pp.221-231 In the late nineteenth century there were firmly demarcated discursive boundaries constitutive of race, religious sects, and class. This essay argues that chapter two of Joseph Furphy's novel 'Such is Life' offers an analysis of the Orange (Protestant) Catholic debate that reflects Furphy's counter culture anti-sectarianist, assimilationist views and contributed to the debate on nation building of the time. A major plank of Furphy's anti-sectarianism is his utopian belief that Orange and Green sectarianism is an old world disease which ought not to be replicated in Australia. Furphy also argued that what in the Australian landscape both physical and moral looks monotonous to the emigrant should be seen as 'ungauged potentiality of resource'.

Edwards, R, The Big Book of Australian Folk Song, (Adelaide: Rigby, 1976). [NMA 784.4994 BIG]

Fahey, W, Eureka: The Songs that made Australia, (Sydney: Omnibus Press, 1984). [NMA 784.0994 FAH]

Fitzpatrick, D, 'Exporting Brotherhood: Orangeism in South Australia', Immigration and Minorities v.23 (2-3), Jul-Nov 2005, pp.277-310. The idea of fraternity and how to organise it was an invisible export from 19th century Europe to the 'New World'. This paper explores the international diffusion from Ireland of the Loyal Orange Institution, with comparative reference to its model of Freemasonry. Explanations proposed for its appeal outside Ireland are facilitating the assimilation of emigrants, transmitting 'tribal' Irish animosities to fresh contexts, or adapting itself to pre-existing sectarian rivalries and factional conflicts. These hypotheses are investigated and tested using evidence from South Australia (SA) where Orangeism was modestly successful, in the absence of Ulster immigration. A collective profile of the Loyal Orange Institution of South Australia (established in 1874) is derived from Lodge records showing age, religious denomination and occupation. The appeal of Orangeism is related to local religious and political contexts in SA, and it was primarily an export of organisational techniques rather than of Irish personnel or bigotry. (Edited author abstract)

Harvey, P, 'Guest, Foreigner, Son: Vincent Buckley and the Matter of Ireland', In Bull,P, F Devlin-Glass and H Doyle eds. Ireland and Australia, 1798-1998: Studies in Culture, Identity and Migration, (Sydney: Crossing Press, 2000), pp.208-220. Vincent Buckley, poet and academic, represents an Australian exile from Ireland who became more troubled with his lost past the further he explored it. This essay traces five stages in Buckley's relationship with Ireland, as reflected in his writings, from his youth in Victoria to the consolidation of his ideas in 'Last Poems'. Buckley's parents avoided speaking of their Irish past, so that for Buckley Ireland was an absence that he spent his life trying to fill, seeking to know Ireland from the inside and find his own identify there. Buckley's journey of discovery is reflected in 'The Pattern' and 'Cutting Green Hay: Friendships, Movements and Cultural Conflicts in Australia's Great Decades'. 'Last Poems' gives the impression that Buckley was ever striving for an Ireland of his own, and that the answers to his questions could not be found in Dublin, the Irish Jerusalem, because they were in himself.

Inglis, KS, The Australian Colonists: An Exploration of Social History, 1788-1870, (Carlton, Vic.: Melbourne University Press, 1974) [NMA 309.194 ING EDWARDS 994.02 ING]

Kiernan, Colm ed. Australia and Ireland 1788-1988: Bicentenary Essays,( Dublin: Gill and Macmillan, c1986). [NMA 305.89162 AUS]

Kiesling, SF, 'English Input to Australia', In Hickey,R ed. Legacies of Colonial English : Studies in Transported Dialects, (Cambridge: Cambridge Univesity Press, 2004), pp.418-439. This study aims to determine what dialects served as the parents of Australian English and how this variety became so uniform throughout the continent, using the tools and theoretical constructs of modern sociolinguistics, information on settlement patterns in Australia, and a comparison of modern and early modern dialects. The generally accepted view that the London English variety probably had the most influence on Australian English is supported, with Irish English having a lesser contribution because of the lower social status of its speakers. It is argued that, rather than inheriting many features from a single south of England dialect, Australian English reflects a levelling of most common dialects, with subsequent changes accounting for class varieties. It is claimed that the specific circulatory pattern of internal migration, traced back to the first colony, produced a uniform envelope of variability. Varieties of Aboriginal English evolved from pidginisation of Indigenous Australian languages.

Lonergan, D, 'Music Out of their Mouths : Irish Language Speakers in Colonial Australia', Australian Journal of Irish Studies v.3 2003, pp.23-32. English was not widely spoken in late 18th century Ireland, consequently Irish was the dominant language of convicts transported to Australia. This article examines the use of Irish in colonial Australia, touching on its political, religious, social, economic and cultural significance. Speaking Irish in New South Wales (NSW) after the 1798 Irish rebellion was viewed with suspicion by authorities, and the difficulty rural Irish convicts would have had acquiring English gave rise to the stereotypical 'stupid' Irishman. It is argued that although Irish was disappearing in Ireland by the late 19th century, and its use in Australia after losing its political overtones was largely unrecorded, it was kept alive in Australia throughout the 20th century. Continued immigration of native Irish speakers and the activities of Irish language revivalists and enthusiasts make it likely that the use of Irish in Australia is greater in the early 21st century than ever before.

Macintyre, C, 'The Adelaide Irish and the Politics of St Patrick's Day 1900-1918', In Irish-Australian Studies: Papers Delivered at the Seventh Irish-Australian Conference, July 1993, Pelan,R ed. Brisbane (Sydney: Crossing Press, 1994), 182-196 pp. St Patrick's Day in Adelaide, prior to World War 1, provided celebrations that were little more than a regular march and a programme of sports and speeches. There was little that was obviously Irish about the festivities. The South Australian Irish took care not to alienate their host community by the promotion of overt ethnic division. Yet, by 1918, a more pronounced political identification with the Irish Nationalists had emerged and participants were invited to show their 'Sinn Fein spirit' and to make the day an 'Irish festival'. This article traces the history of this change, making a connection between the burgeoning political demands of the Home Rulers and the growing influence and importance of the emergent nationalist cultural expressions of the Irish. The nature of the conflict between the Irish and the British changed during the First World War, so the cultural and political dimensions of St Patrick's Day marches and the political concerns of the Irish in South Australia changed. It was the Easter Week uprising and its aftermath that acted to change the way Irish-Australians saw themselves and their relationship with the rest of the broader Australian community. The fear of alienating the broader community had disappeared. (Author abstract)

MacLennan, HD, 'Gu Fearann an Oir: To the Land of Gold [Scottish Emigration to Australia]', Journal of Australian Studies (68), 2001 2001, pp.44-53. Thousands of Scottish emigrants who settled in Australia in the nineteenth century brought with them a mix of Scots, highlander and Gaelic identity and heritage, including language and sports such as the traditional Scottish shinty. Cultural identity was maintained through the establishment of Caledonian societies with their highland games and gatherings. Ultimately however the number of people shipped abroad by the highland and Island Emigration Society (HIES) did not provide the critical mass necessary to sustain ethnic traditions, and the highland games evolved from ethno-cultural tools of Scottish reinforcement to community celebrations on a wider scale, with the marginalisation of traditional sports like shinty in favour of new 'Australian' sports like football. This paper argues that shinty survived to a greater extent than previously acknowledged, and that the contribution of Gaelic culture to Australia's heritage in the wider context has been underestimated. The situation is contrasted with that of Irish culture and sport.

Manifold, JS, The Penguin Australian Song Book, (Ringwood, Vic.: Penguin Australia, 1964). [NMA 784.4994 PEN]

McCarthy, N, 'Irish Rules: Gaelic Football, Family, Work and Culture in Western Australia', Australian Journal of Irish Studies v.3 2003, pp.33-48. St Finbarr's Gaelic Football Club was formed in Perth, Western Australia (WA) in 1972 with the aim of providing a sporting outlet for Irish immigrants and a tangible link to Irish heritage through sport. Modelled on the Gaelic Athletic Association for the Preservation and Cultivation of National Pastimes (GAA), St Finbarr's promoted itself as a family club by constructing an identity that encompassed ethnicity, religion, work and sport. This article examines the cultural role of GAA, the second largest organisation in Ireland after the Catholic Church and arguably Ireland's most important cultural institution, and the intersection of sport and society within St Finbarr's. It is argued that in providing a focus for social interaction and support, St Finbarr's played a prominent role in the construction and reinforcement of popular Irish culture, identity and community in WA.

Molloy, F, 'The Celtic Twilight in Australia', The Australian Journal of Irish Studies v.1 2001 2001, pp.99-106. In the era of agitation for Home Rule in Ireland, the Australian media debated where the loyalties of Irish Australians should lie. Irish cultural distinction through Celtic literature was strongly advanced by some. The 'Celtic Twilight' was a poetic movement promoting Irish folklore and mythology that was bound up with Irish nationalism. This article questions the extent to which Irish Australian poets such as Victor Daley and Roderic Quinn were influenced by the movement. Examination of their work suggests that despite their Celtic influences, Daley and Quinn did not seek careers in an ethnic poetic enclave and saw themselves as Australian poets. The 'Celtic Twilight' was successful in Ireland but remained an Irish phenomenon and did not become firmly established in Australia which had its own destiny to pursue. The movement did not reflect the actualities of colonial life and was of little relevance to the lives of Irish Australians.

''Affection's Broken Chain' : The Irish and Colonial Poetry', The Australian Journal of Irish Studies v.2 2002 2002, pp.122-134. This article explores attitudes of nineteenth century Irish immigrants towards their homeland and towards their adopted land of Australia, as expressed in poetry of the time. An Irish presence in Australian poetry can be dated to the early 1800s. The early poetry reflected two alternative responses to migration, restless rebellion that cannot shake off the homeland, and enthusiastic assimilation. Indeed, these themes recur in poetry throughout the colonial period. From the 1820s, Irish bushranger ballads celebrated rebellion of the convict Irish, and adaptations of Gaelic poetry glorified a distant land that contrasted with antipodean isolation and joylessness. By the late nineteenth century, nostalgia was accompanied by awareness of a new identity, a dual loyalty that proclaimed Ireland as their home but Australia as their country. The transfer of identity from Ireland to Australia was not yet contemplated, but by the 1880s the Irish Australian psyche had moved firmly towards integration.

'A Woman's Place: Irish Australian Women in the Novels of Ruth Park, Criena Rohan, and Ann Clancy', Remembered Nations, Imagined Republics: Twelfth Irish-Australian Conference, Galway, June 2002      Irish Australian authors Ruth Park, Criena Rohan (Deirdre Cash) and Ann Clancy wrote in different times between the 1940s and the 1990s, but all three located their narratives firmly in a place and time. This article explores how and to what extent their heroines' Irish origins shaped the characters' responses to the circumstances in which they found themselves. Park's 'The Harp in the South' and 'Poor Man's Orange', Rohan's 'Down by the Dockside' and Clancy's 'The Wild Colonial Girl' all follow the fortunes of young single women, women on the threshold of life with some similarities to the authors themselves. What the authors made of their characters was largely determined by the authors' own views on the role of women in Australian society, views that have changed radically from Park's 1940s to Rohans's 1960s and to Clancy's 1990s.

O'Connor, A, 'Memory and Cultural Identity: Collecting Folklore in Australia', Australian Journal of Irish Studies v.4 2002, pp.286-292. This article reports on a folklore collection project that aimed to determine whether it is possible to identify the contribution of Irish folklore to the folklore of Australia, and to the construction of an Irish-Australian cultural identity or identities. The collection aimed to cover the breadth of the diversity of the Irish experience in Australia. Material was collected in six major areas, family background and settlement history, religion and religious practices, festivals, rituals, including birth, marriage and death customs, stories and sayings, and songs and music. The constitution of identity is a complex, dynamic and often transformational process. The preservation of traditions by remembering, communicating and performing folklore produces shared understandings, memories and identities that are continuously being re-shaped and re-created.

O'Connor, L, ''The Hooligans' of Australia and Cathleen Ni Houlihan: '98 Insurgency, Song, and Clan Remembrance', In Bull, P, F Devlin-Glass and H Doyle eds. Ireland and Australia, 1798-1998: Studies in Culture, Identity and Migration, (Sydney: Crossing Press, 2000), pp.71-79. The Irish race, though scattered, is held together by song. This essay explores the role of song in shaping an oppositional political will and common memory among the diasporate Irish, focusing on the tension between spontaneity and political consciousness in political balladry. Around the close of the nineteenth century, the play 'Cathleen Ni Houlihan', by W.B. Yeats and Lady Gregory, was released coincidentally with the circulation of the neologism 'hooligan', apparently derived from an Irish Australian song 'The Hooligans'. Both names are from the Gaelic clan name O'hUallachain. The author explores three themes, the relationship between the anglicisation of Ireland and the stereotyping of the Irish as violent atavists, the ambiguously amnesiac and mobilising impact of political balladry, and selective remembrance in commemorative discourse, through a comparison between the rallying force of the song and the play and the O'hUallachain clan war cry.

O'Mahony, B and G Box, 'From Behind the Scenes to Behind the Bar: The Cultural Contribution of Migrant and Transitory Employees to Irish Theme Pubs', In Bertone, S and H Casey eds. Migrants in the New Economy: Problems, Perspectives and Policy, (Melbourne: Victoria University.Workplaces Studies Centre, 2000), pp.131-151. The popularity of Irish theme pubs in Melbourne, Victoria has resulted in a major growth within this sector with a subsequent benefit to the Victorian economy. This study sought to identify the reasons why people are attracted to Irish pubs. The study found that the majority of respondents believed that a visit to an Irish theme pub provided an insight into Irish culture. In addition, most of the respondents identified Irish pub staff as an important component of the service experience. This is in contrast to the traditional role of migrants as 'back of house' staff in many hospitality establishments such as hotels. Irish pub operators indicated that current equal opportunity legislation was a barrier to the recruitment of Irish born employees. An examination of the legal issues involved suggests that Irish pub owners may be in a position to argue for an exemption from the legislation. (Edited author abstract)

Richards, E, 'An Australian Map of British and Irish Literacy in 1841', Population Studies v.53 (3), Nov 1999, pp.345-359. This contribution to the study of literacy transition in Britain, Ireland and Australia also touches on the relationship between literacy and international migration. Some 20,000 emigrants arrived in Australia in 1841 and their literacy is here established at the individual level, and then related to regional origins, occupations, religion, sex and family status in the British Isles. The new Australian data offer unusual evidence to juxtapose with the prevailing account of British and Irish literacy. The paper makes systematic comparisons of the immigrant evidence with existing literacy findings for the populations of England and Wales, of Ireland, and the colonial population of Australia in the year 1841. The results also show extraordinary similarity of rank orderings between the Australian data and the conventional sources. The results show that the immigrants were consistently more literate than the home and the receiving populations and indicate a substantial link between migration and literacy. (Author abstract)

Semmler, C, 'From Dublin to the Bush (on the Irish Influence in Australian Ballads)', Quadrant (Sydney) v.23, Jan/Feb 1979, pp.48-53.

Strugnell, M, 'It's a Long Way from Home: Irish Exiles in Australian Drama', In Irish-Australian Studies: Papers Delivered at the Seventh Irish-Australian Conference, July 1993, Pelan,R ed. Brisbane (Sydney: Crossing Press, 1994), 111-119. Vincent Buckley, in an article entitled Imagination's home developed the concept of a 'source country' from which people derived their most meaningful images, feelings and religious impulses. Strugnell explores this concept from the viewpoint of Irish exiles in Australian drama. With the exiles came a sense of Ireland's long history of persecution, and an adherence to the beliefs and practices of the Catholic Church with which the history, language, social structures and mythology of Ireland were intricately woven. In analysing the work of playwrights Peter Kenna (The Slaughter of St. Teresa's Day and A Hard God), Barry Oakley (The Feet of Daniel Mannix) and John O'Donoghue (A Happy and Holy Occasion), Strugnell examines the tensions between the 'home' of their characters' imagination and the Australian reality in which they find themselves focusing particularly on the dilemma of the children of Irish exiles. (Author abstract)

Williams, C, 'Moran, Mannix and St Patrick's Day [Cardinal Patrick Moran and Cardinal Daniel Mannix]', In Bull, P, F Devlin-Glass and H Doyle eds. Ireland and Australia, 1798-1998: Studies in Culture, Identity and Migration, (Sydney: Crossing Press, 2000), pp.143-151. From the end of the nineteenth century the Catholic Church sought to transform the 'Irish National Celebration' on St Patrick's Day into a demonstration of the strength and unity of the Catholic body in Australia. Cardinal Moran of Sydney and Cardinal Mannix of Melbourne recognised the significance of the celebrations in fostering a collective identity and memory among Irish Catholics. This essay explores the relationship between the church and St Patrick's Day in Melbourne and Sydney in the early decades of the twentieth century, the impact that the onset of clerical control had, and how this differed between the two cities. Although some scholars have argued that clerical control of St Patrick's Day eroded authentic Irishness from the celebrations, the church's role in sustaining ties between Ireland and Irish Australians should be acknowledged, and Irishness and Catholicism seen not as opposing but interdependent, complementary elements of Irish Catholic identity in Australia.

Wooding, JM, 'Irish-Australian Monuments and the Discourse of the Celtic Revival', In Irish-Australian Studies: Papers Delivered at the Seventh Irish-Australian Conference, July 1993, Pelan,R ed. Brisbane (Sydney: Crossing Press, 1994), 1-14. Grave markers, ornamented tombs and churches may be seen as objects which are interactive with social discourse, or which contribute to the formation of cultural identity. In this paper, the author looks at Irish-Australian monuments from two viewpoints - the first being 'contribution' commemoration, that is, a contribution to Australian history by reminding the viewer of an Irish presence; the second being 'compensation' history which is concerned with retrospectively commemorating the deeds of forgotten individuals. Wooding discusses various Irish-Australian monuments around Australia, linking them to the Celtic Revival. Of particular interest are monuments such as the 1798 Monument at Waverley, a shrine to the Fenian tradition, used as an example of 'compensation' history, and the crypt of Sydney's St Mary's Cathedral used as an example of 'contribution' history. The use of round towers and high crosses in Church architecture, and the use of ornament in Australia paralleled Celtic Revival interests in Europe.

'The 'Language in which they Spoke in '98': The Irish Language and the Centenary of 1798 in Ireland and Australia', In Bull, P, F Devlin-Glass and H Doyle eds. Ireland and Australia, 1798-1998: Studies in Culture, Identity and Migration, (Sydney: Crossing Press, 2000), pp.64-70. One of the more compelling debates of the bicentenary of 1798 has been over the role of the Irish language in the 1798 rising. In Ireland in 1798 the Irish language was a basic means of communication for people of all faiths and classes, but was neither synonymous with separatism nor had achieved sufficient minority status to be useful as a vehicle for covert discourse. This essay explores the complexities of the role of Gaelic revival discourses in '98 centenary histories and monuments, with particular reference to the Australian '98 centenary celebration, and the degree to which the language was used as covert discourse or promoted as a symbol of nationalism. It is concluded that the Irish language should be made a part of the historiography of the 1898 centenary

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Australian Capital Territory

Lehane, R, Irish Gold: A Tale of Two Pioneer Families, (Charnwood, ACT: Ginninderra Press, 2002).

Reid, R and A Fitzgerald, 'Ireland and Australia -Series of 2 Parts-: Part 1: Irish/ Australians since 1788 have been Famous and Infamous. Part 2: Irish Links with the Canberra District', Canberra Times, 4 June 1985: 10 4 June 1985: 11.

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Bibliographies and References

Australia/Irish Web Pages, (2007) http://users.bigpond.net.au/kirwilli/aussieirish/aussie_irish.htm

Bolton, G, 'The Irish in Australian Historiography', In Kiernan,C ed. Australia and Ireland, 1788–1988, (North Ryde, N.S.W.: Angus and Robertson, 1984). [NMA 305.89162 AUS]

Centre for Irish Studies, (Murdoch University. Centre for Irish Studies, 2007), www.soc.murdoch.edu.au/cfis

Griffith University. Faculty of Arts, 2914HUM P: The Irish in Australia [Study Guide], Revised 2003/2, (Griffith University, 2003).

Irish Australia on the Web, (2005) http://www.irishaustralia.com/

Irish Convicts to Australia: Links to Australian Convict Sites, (2007) http://members.pcug.org.au/~ppmay/austlinks.htm

Macdonagh, O and others, 'Irish [History of Australia's Irish Community]', In Jupp, J ed. The Australian People: An Encyclopedia of the Nation, its People and their Origins, 2nd ed, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), pp.443-486. [NMA REF F 994 AUS] The first Irish to come to Australia arrived on convict ships, and it is estimated that between 1791 and 1867 some 40,000 male and female convicts were transported from Ireland to Australia, and a further 8,000 to 10,000 Irish born convicts were transported from England. Thus began the legacy of the Irish in Australia. This article examines the economic, social and political conditions in Ireland in the 18th and 19th centuries and the circumstances which prompted mass emigration from Ireland between 1840 and 1914. Specific attention is paid to the Irish women immigrants in the 19th century, the Irish character of the Australian Catholic Church, Irish-Protestant settlement, Anglo-Irish, Irish in Victoria and New South Wales (NSW) in the 19th century, Irish in Australian politics, Irish influences on Australian culture, Irish immigration after 1945, emigration from independent Ireland to Australia from 1922 to 1970 and modern Irish in Western Australia (WA).

'Places of Birth [List of People of Irish Birth in the Australian Dictionary of Biography]', In Ritchie, J ed. Australian Dictionary of Biography: 12 Vols and Index 1788-1939, (Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 1991), pp.146-153.[NMA REF 920.094 AUS Index].

Press, K, Bibliography for Researching Irish Family History in the Victorian State Library, (Malvern, Vic.: Kate Press, 1994). In her introduction to this excellent book, author Kate Press states that `it is the result of many years of research' and this is easy to believe when you scan through the pages which are crammed with summaries of the books and other resources of use in researching Irish Family History held in the Victorian State Library. The holdings naturally have been grouped into appropriate classifications but it doesn't end there; each classification has an introduction giving the history and background to the resources contained therein, related resources and where they can be accessed if not held by the Victorian State Library. Research hints and examples are scattered throughout the text at the appropriate points, to demonstrate the usefulness of the various records.’

University Theses on Irish Topics, (Murdoch University. Centre for Irish Studies, 2007), http://www.soc.murdoch.edu.au/cfis/

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Convict Era

Adam-Smith, P, Heart of Exile Ireland, 1848, and the Seven Patriots Banished ... (Melbourne: Nelson, 1986). [NMA 941.5081 ADA]

Amos, K, The Fenians in Australia 1865-1880, (Kensington, N.S.W.: New South Wales University Press, 1988). [NMA 994.0049162 AMO]

Bolton, G, 'The Fenians are Coming, the Fenians are Coming', Studies in Western Australian History (4), Dec 1981, pp.62-67.

Christie, EM, The Fenian Prisoners in Western Australia: Extracts Relating to their Escape by the American Barque 'Catalpa', 1876, (1955)

Collins, P, Hell's Gates: The Terrible Journey of Alexander Pearce, Van Dieman's Land Cannibal, (South Yarra, Vic.: Hardie Grant Books, 2002). [NMA 365.6092 COL]

Costello, C, Botany Bay: The Story of the Convicts Transported from Ireland to Australia, 1791-1853, (Cork: Mercier, 1987).

Davis, R, 'Unpublicised Young Ireland Prisoners in Van Diemen's Land', Papers and Proceedings (Tasmanian Historical Research Association) v.38 (3-4), Dec 1991, pp.131-137.

Davis, RP, Revolutionary Imperialist: William Smith O'Brien 1803-1864 (Darlinghurst, N.S.W: Crossing Press,1998). [NMA 941.5081 DAV].

Devoy, J, P Fennell and M King, John Devoy's Catalpa Expedition, (New York: New York University Press, 2006). "The story of John Devoy's 1876 Catalpa rescue is a tale of heroism, creativity, and the triumph of independent spirit in pursuit of freedom. The daily log on board the whaling ship Catalpa begins with the typical recount of a crew intact and a spirit unfettered, but such quiet words deceive the truth of the audacious enterprise that came to be known as one of the most important rescues in Irish American history. John Devoy's men aided in the break-in and subsequent rescue of Irish political prisoners from the Australian coast, allowing millions of fellow Irishmen and American-Fenians, many of whom secretly financed the dangerous plot, to draw courage from the newly exiled prisoners."; "Philip Fennell and Marie King, both descendants of a pardoned Fenian prisoner, tell the story from John Devoy's own records and from the ship's logbooks. John Devoy's Catalpa Expedition includes an introduction by Terry Golway and the personal diaries, letters, and reports from John Devoy and his men."--BOOK JACKET.

Donohoe, JH, The Convicts and Exiles Transported from Ireland, 1791-1820, ([Sydney]: J.H. Donohoe, 1990). [NMA REF 929.394 DON]

Gapps, S, 'Performing the Unknown: The Re-Enactment of the 1804 Battle of Vinegar Hill. [the Combination of Live Performance and History can Work Wonders.]', History Australia v.1 (2), July 2004: 308-313. <http://search.informit.com.au/fullText;res=APAFT;dn=200406788>.

Glover, M, A MacLochlainn and Tasmanian Historical Association, Letters of an Irish Patriot: William Paul Dowling in Tasmania, (Sandy Bay, Tas.: Tasmanian Historical Research Association, 2005). [NMA 994.6031 LET]

Graham, M and D Bamford, 'Chartists and Young Irelanders: Towards a Reassessment of Political Prisoners in Van Diemen's Land', Papers and Proceedings (Tasmanian Historical Research Association) v.32 (2), June 1985:, pp.68-74.

Hall, B, A Desperate Set of Villains: The Convicts of the Marquis Cornwallis, Ireland to Botany Bay 1796, (Coogee, N.S.W.: B. Hall, 2000).

A Nimble Fingered Tribe: The Convicts of the Sugar Cane, Ireland to Botany Bay, 1793, (Coogee, N.S.W.: B. Hall, 2002). [NMA 929.3944 HAL]

Of Infamous Character: The Convicts of the Boddingtons, Ireland to Botany Bay, 1793, (Coogee, N.S.W.: B. Hall, 2004).

Death Or Liberty: The Convicts of the Britannia: Ireland to Botany Bay 1797, (Coogee, N.S.W.: B. Hall, 2006). [NMA 929.3944 HAL]

Halls, C, 'The Great Escape: Fenians at Fremantle 1868-1876', Port of Fremantle v.7 (4), 1982, pp.14-18.

Harrison, J, 'Governors, Gaolers and Guards: Irish Soldiers at Moreton Bay, 1824-42', In Irish-Australian Studies: Papers Delivered at the Seventh Irish-Australian Conference, July 1993, Pelan, R ed. Brisbane (Sydney: Crossing Press, 1994), 300-310 pp. This paper looks at the Irish members of the six British foot regiments which administered the Moreton Bay penal settlement between 1824 and 1842. These regiments were the 4th, the 17th, the 28th, the 40th, the 57th and the 80th. By analysing the backgrounds of the Irish members of the foot regiments, Harrison provides case studies which reveal several similarities between the soldiers who had the responsibility of guarding convicts and the convicts themselves. Examples are: the Irish soldiers came from precisely the same townlands and parishes in Ireland as the convicts; both groups were serving in institutions, strictly bound by rules and regulations administered by the British government; and both had come to Australia under orders. Harrison cites many other similarities, and considers the implications of such similarities when assessing the relationship between the two groups. It would not have been unusual for some of them to have known each other in Ireland, and to continue their friendship at Moreton Bay. Because there were only two classes of people at Moreton Bay, Harrison suggests that some of the goodwill which existed there, could be attributed to the similarities between some of the governors, gaolers and guards and their prisoners due to shared Irish origins.

''I Beg Leave to Acquaint You': Irish-Australian Improvements to Convict Transportation', In Bull,P, F Devlin-Glass and H Doyle eds. Ireland and Australia, 1798-1998: Studies in Culture, Identity and Migration, (Sydney: Crossing Press, 2000). In its management of convict transportation, the British Government was primarily concerned with despatching criminals onto vessels in the most economical way possible. As receiving agents, it was the colonial authorities in New South Wales and Tasmania who were most aware of problems arising during transportation and potential solutions. This article reviews the progress in improvement of conditions for transported convicts, highlighting the initial difficulties in getting officials in London to respond to recommendations from colonial authorities, and the factors which opened the way for reform from 1820. Irish prison medical officer, Dr Edward Trevor, and Australian officials including William Redfern, initiated improvements in health, education, and gainful employment of prisoners before, during, and after their transportation, which set sound precedents for migrant ships. Other issues addressed included misconduct by captains who sold goods intended for transportees or official use, and transmission of information about convicts.

Howard, P, To Hell Or to Hobart, (Kenthurst, NSW: Kangaroo Press, 1993). [NMA 941.5081 HOW]

Irish Convicts to Australia: Links to Australian Convict Sites, (2007). http://members.pcug.org.au/~ppmay/austlinks.htm

Keely, V, Dixon of Botany Bay: The Convict Priest from Wexford, (Strathfield, N.S.W.: St Pauls Publications, 2003). [NMA 282.415092 KEE] The remarkable story of James Dixon an Irish priest wrongly accused and convicted of taking part in the Irish Rebellion of 1798 and transported to Australia.

Keneally, T, 'The Great Shame [Irish Emigration]', The Sydney Papers v.11 (1), Summer 1999, pp.85-94. This article discusses the author's book entitled The Great Shame. The purpose of the book is to recount part of the history of Ireland in terms relevant to Australia, in terms which make everyone's motivation, from Westminster's to that of the most remote rural protestor in Western Ireland, credible. It seeks to set the record of how many of the crimes committed by the Irish arose from a sense of being trapped in a marginal condition in a disastrously maladministered society. To illustrate this history, it examines the careers of particular convicts to illustrate how Australia, and later America, acted upon some of the political dissidents, and the way new countries made their own scale of demands upon the newcomers.

Kiely, B, The Waterford Rebels of 1849: The Last Young Irelanders and their Lives in America, Bermuda and Van Diemen's Land, (Dublin: Geography Publications, 1999). [NMA EDWARDS 941.91 KIE].

Kiernan, Colm ed. Australia and Ireland 1788-1988: Bicentenary Essays, ( Dublin: Gill and Macmillan, 1986). [NMA 305.89162 AUS]

Kiernan, TJ, The Irish Exiles in Australia, (Melbourne: Burns & Oates, 1954).

McIntyre, P, ''Reduced to Great and Deep Distress': Families Abandoned because of Transportation to New South Wales', Australian Journal of Irish Studies v.4 2002, pp.152-161. Many Irish women and children were left with no means of support when their husbands and fathers were transported to New South Wales (NSW). This article examines the plight of these families and their options for government or non-government assistance. Some wives, such as Julia Whitehill, were able to join their husbands in NSW under a policy of family reunion based on good behaviour by the convict husband and respectability and moral behaviour on the part of the abandoned wife. This policy continued for some years after the official end of transportation in 1840. However, as Ireland lacked a parish relief system and the Poor Law and workhouse system were introduced too late to help most convict families, those remaining behind were vulnerable to poverty, depending with variable success on the limited and selective charity of voluntary organisations or the support of relatives, landlords, neighbours and friends.

McQueen, H, 'Convicts and Rebels', Labour History v.15 November 1968, pp.3-30.

Mitchel, J and P O'Shaughnessy, The Gardens of Hell: John Mitchel in Van Diemen's Land 1850-1853, (Kenthurst, N.S.W.: Kangaroo Press, 1988). [NMA 941.50810924 MIT]

Moore, A, 'Phil Cunningham: A Forgotten Irish-Australian Rebel [this is the Text of a Presentation Delivered at 'Remembering Vinegar Hill' Seminar, Blacktown City Council, 7 March 2004.]', Hummer (Sydney) v.4 (2), Winter 2004, pp.7-12. <http://search.informit.com.au/fullText;res=APAFT;dn=200409924>.

Murray, R, 'Sydney's Brush with Bonaparte', Quadrant (Sydney) v.48 (1-2), Quadrant (Sydney), v.48, no.1-2: 34-41. http://search.informit.com.au/fullText;res=APAFT;dn=200400670; http://www.quadrant.org.au/php/archive_details_list.php?article_id=584 [NMA S 052 QUA].

O Luing, S, Fremantle Mission, (Tralee, Ireland: Anvil Books, 1965).

O'Donnell, R, 'Michael Dwyer: Wicklow Chief and Irish-Australian Hero', In Irish-Australian Studies: Papers Delivered at the Seventh Irish-Australian Conference, July 1993, Pelan, R ed. Brisbane (Sydney: Crossing Press, 1994), 206-217. Michael Dwyer has the status of Australia's premier Irish hero figure. The most dramatic representation of this status within Australia is his tomb, Waverley Cemetery's Patriot's Monument which commemorates heroes of the 1798 Rebellion. This biographical article traces his involvement with the United Irishmen and the events of the Rebellion. Many accounts have been written of Michael Dwyer, and his literary potential as a figure of romance and adventure attracted much interest from poets, travel writers and novelists who used the material offered by his countless escapes and magnanimous acts which had made him a folk hero in Wicklow. In 1805, he was transported to New South Wales and in 1806, he became one of the leading members of the Irish community and associated with other successful compatriots. He remained in Australia until his death in 1898.

O'Donnell, R and B Reece, ''A Valuable Man' : James Meehan, United Irishman', In Bull,P, F Devlin-Glass and H Doyle eds. Ireland and Australia, 1798-1998: Studies in Culture, Identity and Migration, (Sydney: Crossing Press, 2000), pp.48-63. James Meehan was a United Irishmen rebel who was convicted of treason in 1798 and rose from Irish Australian convict to become the deputy surveyor general of colonial New South Wales (NSW). This essay explores why, in spite of his considerable material achievements, Meehan, known as Jimmy or Jemmy Mane, is almost forgotten in Australian historical writing, and argues that the significance of his Irish and colonial careers has not been fully appreciated. Meehan's role in the United Irishmen is summarised. In NSW, Meehan avoided any involvement in United Irish politics, and his education, surveying skills, integrity and energy made him invaluable to successive governments for almost 20 years.

O'Farrell, P, 'The Irish in Australia: Some Aspects of the Period 1791-1850', Descent v.7 (2), March 1975.

Pease, ZW, The Catalpa Expedition, (Carlisle, W.A.: Hesperian Press, 2002). [NMA 365.0994 PEA]

Perkins, H, The Convict Priests, (Rosanna, Vic.: H. Perkins, 1984). [NMA 282.0922 PER]

Petrow, S, 'Island Prison: John Mitchel in Van Diemen's Land', Australian Journal of Irish Studies v.3 2003, pp.62-78. John Mitchel was an Irish rebel who was transported to Van Diemen's Land (Tasmania) in 1849. This article analyses Mitchel's experiences as an Irish Exile and his responses to them, as recorded in his 'Jail Journal'. 'Jail Journal' is considered important on many levels, having been a source of strength for Mitchel, and now providing a literate and insightful historical political and social commentary and a symbolic statement of Irish determination and defiance. Although Mitchel resented captivity, he adjusted to his new surroundings and developed an environmental awareness. Holding strong anti-transportation views, Mitchel distinguished himself from the convicts, whom he considered were too well-treated. Eventually able to bring his family out and establish a farm, he enjoyed comparative liberty in the companionship of fellow Irish Exiles. However, Mitchel longed for true liberty and tired of the Englishness of Van Diemen's Land, and escaped to the United States (US) in 1853.

'Men of Honour?: The Escape of the Young Irelanders from Van Diemen's Land. [Paper in Special Issue: Escape: Essays on Convict Australia.]', Journal of Australian Colonial History v.7 (2005), pp.139-160. http://search.informit.com.au/fullText;res=APAFT;dn=200607427

Reece, Bob ed. Exiles from Erin: Convict Lives in Ireland and Australia, (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1991). [NMA 365.3409415 EXI]

Irish Convict Lives, (Sydney: Crossing Press, 1993).

The Origins of Irish Convict Transportation to New South Wales, (Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave, 2001). "This study explores the pre-history of Irish convict transportation to New South Wales which began with the Queen in April 1791. It traces earlier attempts to revive the trans-Atlantic convict trade and the frustrated efforts by Irish authorities to join in the Botany Bay scheme after 1786. The nine Irish shipments to North America and the West Indies are described in detail for the first time, including the dramatic outcomes in Nova Scotia, Newfoundland and the Leeward Islands which eventually forced the Home Office to find space for Irish convicts on the Third Fleet. These events are related against the background of Dublin's burgeoning crime rate in the 1780s, the critical insecurity of its prison system and the troubled political relationship between Ireland and Britain."--BOOK JACKET.

Reid, R, 'Convict Records in the State Paper Office, Dublin', Descent v.13 (4), Dec 1983, pp.187-190.

Reid, Richard and Keith Johnson eds. The Irish Australians: Selected Articles for Australian and Irish Family Historians, (Sydney: Society of Australian Genealogists and Ulster Historical Foundation, 1984). A range of twelve articles which indicate the variety of contemporary interest in the Irish Australians. Titles include: A signpost to Irish-Australian state papers; The 'Queen' - 1st Irish convict ship to New South Wales; Convicts from Ireland 1788-1868; Sources for Irish-Australia genealogy in the Public Record Office of Northern Ireland; From Ballyduff to Boorowa - Irish assisted immigration to New South Wales, 1830-1896; John Flood - Fenian exile; Irish gravestone inscriptions and the genealogist; and Ireland over here - nineteenth century Irish immigrants in southern New South Wales.

Rude, G, 'Early Irish Rebels in Australia', Historical Studies v.16 (62), April 1974, pp.17-35. [NMA S 994 HIS]

Rude, G, Protest and Punishment: The Story of the Social and Political Protesters Transported to Australia, 1788-1868, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1978). [NMA 365.34 RUD]

Russo, G, Race for the Catalpa: (the Fenian Escape Story), ([Perth]: Lynward Enterprises, 1986). [NMA 365.450994 RUS]

Shaw, AGL, Convicts and the Colonies: A Study of Penal Transportation from Great Britain and Ireland to Australia and Other Parts of the British Empire, (Carlton, Vic.: Melbourne University Press, 1977). [NMA 365.30994 SHA]

Silver, LR, The Battle of Vinegar Hill: Australia's Irish Rebellion 1804, (Sydney: Doubleday, 1989). [NMA 364.13109944 SIL]

Symes, JG, The Castle Hill Rebellion of 1804, Revised edition, ([Castle Hill]: Hills District Historical Society, 1990).

Whitaker, A, 'Swords to Ploughshares?: The 1798 Irish Rebels in New South Wales', Labour History(75), Nov 1998, pp.9-21. <http://search.informit.com.au/fullText;res=APAFT;dn=200004706>.

Whiting, B, Victims of Tyranny: The Story of the Fitzgerald Convict Brothers, (Strathfield, N.S.W.: Harbour Publishing, 2004). [NMA 994.020922 WHI]

Williams, J, Ordered to the Island: Irish Convicts and Van Diemen's Land, (Sydney: Crossing Press, 1994). The aim of this book is to examine the origins of Irish convicts transported to Van Diemen's Land and to discuss how they reacted to colonial conditions. Chapter 1 argues that the Catholic Irish background made these convicts unique in many respects compared with convicts of other nationalities in Van Diemen's Land. Chapters 2 and 3 analyse and compare the offences of Irish convicts with those of other prisoners. Chapter 4 uses available records to suggest the reasons for transportation to Van Diemen's Land as opposed to New South Wales. The last two chapters deal with the Irish convicts in Van Diemen's Land.

Woore, M, 'Neither Felons nor Free: Political Prisoners and Social Protestors [Series of Two Parts]: Part 2', Descent v.27 (3), Sept 1997, pp.130-134. <http://search.informit.com.au/fullText;res=APAFT;dn=980808272>.

Return to Contents

General

Abbasi-Shavazi, MJ and P McDonald, 'Fertility and Multiculturalism: Immigrant Fertility in Australia, 1977-1991', International Migration Review v.34 (129), Spring 2000, pp.215-242. During the period 1977-1991, previous policies of assimilation or integration of immigrants into mainstream culture were replaced by a policy of multiculturalism, one of the dimensions of which was support for cultural maintenance. Immigrants generally adapted to Australian fertility patterns in the pre-multicultural period. This study examines whether immigrants and their children in the multicultural era have been more likely to follow the fertility patterns of their country of origin than previously. Using 1991 Census data, total and age-specific fertility rates for first-generation immigrants are compared with those of Australian-born women. The fertility of six selected groups, British-Irish, Dutch, Greeks, Italians, Poles and Lebanese, is analysed. It is shown that while adaptation to Australian patterns remains the dominant feature of the fertility patterns of immigrants, Italian and Greek Australians show evidence of cultural maintenance in fertility patterns, while the Lebanese exhibited a distinctive pattern. (Edited author abstract)

Auchmuty, JJ, 'The Anglo-Irish Influence on the Foundation of Australian Institutions', University Gazette 1969.

Bourke, H, D McCaughey and C McConville, 'Patrick O'Farrell on the Irish in Australia', In Irish-Australian Studies: Papers Delivered at the Sixth Irish-Australian Conference, Bull, P, C McConville and N McLachlanedsMelbourne (Melbourne: La Trobe University, 1990), 258-274. Patrick O'Farrell's book 'The Irish in Australia', which was published by the University of New South Wales Press in 1986, was the subject of a symposium on the final afternoon of the Sixth Irish Australian Conference, 6 July 1990. Chris McConville comments on the book chapter by chapter, outlining his response to the chapters. Helen Bourke offers a few ideas on the problems of measuring or assaying distinctiveness in the Irish Catholic experience in Australia. She focusses on two broad propositions which are advanced by O'Farrell namely the nature of the Irish people and their relationship to the Catholic Church and the dominant assimilatory of the Irish. Davis McCaughey welcomes the way in which O'Farrell breaks up the stereotypes into which Irish immigrants and settlers in this country are often set and he also comments on the influence of European Enlightenment and revolutionary thought on the Irish as well as their contribution to the establishment of a range of institutions. O'Farrell suggests that his book was written to stimulate acute and penetrating criticisms and to see into what the Irish are about and to feel proud about it. He concludes with a plug for his new book 'Vanished Kingdoms'.

Brownrigg, Jeff, Cheryl Mongan and Richard Reid eds. Echoes of Irish Australia: Rebellion to Republic, (Galong, N.S.W.: St. Clement's Retreat and Conference Centre, 2007). A collection of twenty-three essays covering various aspects of Irish Australian history and culture.

Bull, Philip, Frances Devlin-Glass and Helen Doyle eds. Ireland and Australia, 1798-1998: Studies in Culture, Identity and Migration, (Sydney: Crossing Press, 2000). The United Irishmen's rebellions of 1798 occasioned the first significant migration of Irish people to the new antipodean colonies, beginning an association of Irish and Australian societies that was to resonate in strong and creative ways for the next 200 years. This volume presents selected papers from the bicentennial commemoration of the 1798 rebellion, arranged in five broad strands, 1798 and its remembrance, the Irish diaspora, literature and culture, the languages of reconciliation in Northern Ireland, and conflict and reconciliation in modern Ireland.

Bull, Philip, Chris McConville and Noel McLachlan eds. Irish-Australian Studies: Papers Delivered at the Sixth Irish-Australian Conference, July 1990, Melbourne: La Trobe University, 1991. The Irish contribution to the life and history of Melbourne and Victoria feature prominently in this volume of papers from the Sixth Irish Australian Conference. The tradition of these conferences has been an eclectic one, and this collection follows that pattern. The papers include discussions on Irish women in nineteenth century Australia, the Anglo-Irish in Australia, the Irish townscape of nineteenth century Melbourne, the Irish in Gippsland, and Geelong, Irish musical and social institutions in Melbourne, selling emigration from Ireland to Australia in 1836-1845, the Irish base of the Australian religious order the Sisters of St Joseph. The final day of the conference included a symposium on Patrick O'Farrell's book 'The Irish in Australia'.

Burnley, IH, The Impact of Immigration on Australia: A Demographic Approach, ([South Melbourne, Vic]: Oxford University Press, 2001).  The significant influence that waves of immigrant settlers have had on Australia's places and spaces are examined in this book. Although the focus is on immigration to the metropolitan and industrial cities in the second half of the twentieth century, the social geographies and histories of immigrant communities in Australia in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries are also explored in order to understand these recent experiences. The key question addressed is whether immigrants of various cultural backgrounds have formed segregated communities or whether, over time, they have merged with the wider society. This question raises further subsidiary questions such as whether segregation or concentration matter, and how local communities have responded to the immigrant presence. The theme of increasing cultural diversity is traced by first considering the Scottish, Irish, Welsh, English, and Cornish immigrant groups, followed by the plethora of communities from Continental Europe, the Middle East, Asia and South America.

Campbell, M, 'Exploring Comparative History: The Irish in Australia and the United States', In Irish-Australian Studies: Papers Delivered at the Seventh Irish-Australian Conference, July 1993, Anonymous Brisbane (Sydney: Crossing Press, 1994), 342-354. This paper briefly surveys some recent historiography on the Irish in the United States, before turning to examine a comparison between the Irish in Australia and the United States. In Australia, most recent scholarship has tended to emphasise the relatively smooth adjustment of Irish immigrants in the nineteenth century. Yet in the United States, many historians continue to portray the Irish in a manner widely at variance with that of Australian studies. The author explores these differences and the reasons for them in this article.

Cantwell, B, 'Irish Australia: Constituency Or Contradiction', Irish Echo v.13 (6), 15 March 2000, pp.13, 15. Australia is the most Irish of countries outside Ireland. One third of Australians are of Irish heritage. This fact is repeated each St. Patrick's Day to remind the Irish in Australia of the privileged position they hold in the community. The place of the Irish in Australian society in the year 2000 is discussed in this article. A large number of prominent Australians are of Irish descent, including John Fahey, Paul Keating and Sir William Deane. Unlike the Irish community in the United States, Australian Irish are not seen as totally distinct from mainstream Australia, but there are some issues which could earn the support of the vast majority of Irish in Australia. Examples would be official support for the Gaelic games and St. Patrick's Day celebrations, and a more active role by the Australian Government in the search for peace in Northern Ireland. There is some resistance by the Irish to be seen as an ethnic group, but they may well find that they share more with their fellow migrants than they do with mainstream Australia.

Caterson, S, 'Irish-Australian Attitudes: [an Earlier Version of a Section of this Essay was Presented as a Paper to the Monday Forum at the Melbourne Savage Club, Held on 26 July 2004.]', Quadrant (Sydney) v.48 (11), Nov 2004, pp.11-18. <http://search.informit.com.au/fullText;res=APAFT;dn=200411807; http://www.quadrant.org.au/php/archive_details_list.php?article_id=1006> [NMA S 052 QUA]

Chetkovich, J, 'Not for Economic Gain: Elsie Butler in Western Australia [Individual Experiences of Elsie and George Butler, Irish Emigrants to Western Australia (WA)]', Studies in Western Australia History(20), 2000, pp.151-167.[NMA S 994.1 STU] Documentary sources and historical analysis provide a picture of migration, but studies of ordinary individuals' experiences uncover more of the story of Irish emigration and the experience of the receiving country. Oral history reveals insights not accessible through any other source. In the story of Elsie Butler's emigration, cultural rather than economic issues are represented as the dominant factors. Religious tension, or the potential for it, was the major reason why Elsie Butler and her husband George left Ireland for Western Australia (WA) in 1958. As Irish Protestants, they were unaware that the majority of Irish migrants to Australia had always been Catholic, so they stayed outside Irish networks. The central liberating theme of their immigration experience was that they chose their friends due to mutual interest, not class, religion or family. Physical mobility accompanied their social mobility and the Butlers worked and lived in many remote areas of WA.

''There would seem to be a Wonderful Freedom Out here': The Irish in Western Australia', In Wilding, R and F Tilbury eds. A Changing People: Diverse Contributions to the State of Western Australia, (Perth: Department of the Premier and Cabinet. Office of Multicultural Interests, 2004): 222-235. The Irish have been part of Western Australia (WA) since the colony was founded and continue to be a vibrant presence. Prompted by social and economic devastation and political unrest in Ireland, and attracted by the Australian gold rushes, Irish migrants formed the second largest ethnic group in WA after the English. They were culturally and religiously distinct from the dominant English in the colonial period and experienced discrimination arising from historic English-Irish and Anglican-Catholic animosity. However, the Irish proved in the main to be successful and respectable citizens. Certain Irish stereotypical characteristics such as rebelliousness have become essential aspects of Australian identity. After World War II (WWII) the Irish became less distinctive amongst the diversity of new ethnicites in Australia as they were granted British subject status and were subsumed in an 'Anglo-Celtic' ethnicity. However, they have recently begun to re-assert their Irish cultural heritage through various clubs and associations.

Cleary, PS, Australia's Debt to Irish Nation Builders, (Sydney: Angus & Robertson, 1933).

Coffey, HW and MJ Morgan, Irish Families in Australia and New Zealand 1788-1979, (South Melbourne: H.W. Coffey, 1978-1980).

Cronin, M & Adair, D, The wearing of the green: a history of St. Patrick's Day (New York: Routledge, 2002)

Doyle, H, 'Allegations of Disloyalty at Koroit during World War I [Victoria]', In Bull, P, et al eds. Ireland and Australia, 1798-1998: Studies in Culture, Identity and Migration, (Sydney: Crossing Press, 1998), pp.165-176.  Irish traditions are perpetuated in the district around Koroit, near Warrnambool, Victoria, and during World War I Irish sentiment characterised the politics of the area. Koroit, as elsewhere in Australia, was polarised over conscription between political beliefs, on the one hand, and religious and racial identity, on the other. This essay investigates stories, both told and untold, of incidents surrounding the recruitment drives and conscription debate in Koroit that highlight the sectarian fears and the antagonism between labour and conservative, between Catholic and Protestant, of country Victoria at the time. Oral accounts, newspaper reports and historical records of events at Koroit differ, reflecting different perspectives of the social and political background. The uncertainty of knowledge about Koroit's wartime experience contributes to its significance, suggesting that what the locals want to remember is not the divisions but rather the strength that Irish nationalism once had in the town.

Erickson, R, 'Friends and Neighbours: The Irish of Toodyay [Irish Migrant Families in Western Australia (WA)]', Studies in Western Australia History(20), Studies in Western Australia History, n20, 2000: The Irish in Western Australia, p49-58 2000, pp.49-58. [NMA S 994.1 STU] The 1837 Western Australian (WA) census recorded fewer than 30 Irish women and not all were Catholic. The British Government decided to send equal numbers of free immigrants and convicts. Protestants in Perth, WA were reluctant to hire Irish servants even when 115 women, from poorer parts of Ireland, arrived. More Irish families and single women arrived, but colonists still needed servants. In 1853, the Resident Magistrate of Toodyay appealed for more young women for his district and by 1854, 50 had arrived. This article describes the Toodyay settlement, the employees' cottages clustered around the 'big house', and the persistence of British social class distinctions. The stories of three Irish farm families, the Pritchards, Beards and Lahiffs, and their gradual move to independence are told. They lived within walking distance of each other at Toodyay and, though illiterate, the Irish migrants sent their children to school and the class distinctions gradually faded.

Fahey, C, 'A Fine Country for the Irish [Successful Agricultural Settlement in Northeastern Victoria]', Australian Journal of Irish Studies v.4 2002, pp.190-201. This article examines the role played by Irish settlers in the agricultural settlement of Victoria. Contrary to popular notions that Irish settlement in 19th century northeastern Victoria was marked by rural poverty and social distress, Census data and statistical records relating to land selection in rural Victoria show that law-abiding selectors followed pastoral settlement, carving European-style farms out of the bush, recreating the institutions of the old world and laying the foundations of stable and prosperous rural communities. It is argued that the Irish played a prominent role in land selection, bringing extensive farming experience to a process of continual learning and adaptation to the Australian environment. Rather than rejecting the state, the Irish settlers capitalised on the opportunities provided by the state through the land acts, marshalling their resources and their families to exploit the law to its limit.

Fisher, Rod and Barry Shaw eds. Brisbane: The Ethnic Presence since the 1850s, (Kelvin Grove, Qld: Brisbane History Group, 1993).   This volume comprises eleven papers on the history of ethnicity and multiculturalism in the Brisbane region since the 1850s. It concentrates on the colonial period from separation to federation and the twentieth century through the two world wars until modern day. The papers provide overviews of several ethnic groups during these periods, especially the Welsh, Irish, Italians and Germans and highlights various themes including: motivation, attraction, migration and distribution; government policy and the demographic profile over time; economic and occupational impact, including mining, farming and building; social and cultural features, including associations, churches, cuisine; preservation and adaptation of traditional culture; reciprocal attitudes and relations within the Anglo-Celtic society; integration, assimilation, division and discrimination; impact of war on ethnic communities; and life histories, personal experiences and individual achievements.

Hamilton, P, The Irish, (Melbourne: Thomas Nelson, 1978).

Henderson, G, 'How the Irish made Australia Egalitarian', The Age, 9 Jan 2001 2001, p13. The early Irish immigrants are given credit by the author for Australia's present relatively egalitarian society. The Irish determination not to be put down is considered to be the foundation for a liberal and more open Australian society. Sectarianism was rife in Australia a century ago, for example, an 1872 speech by Henry Parkes objected to the pace of Irish immigration. He alleged that the Irish in Australia were a disruptive influence, who were ignorant and undemocratic and undesirable. In another speech Parkes is quoted as wishing for the community to be thoroughly British and for the Protestant religion to be dominant. However despite Australia's egalitarianism, research has shown that there has been no increase in overall income inequality in Australia. The rich and the poor are better off, with the middle income group losing out.

Herraman, A, 'Irish Settlers Beyond the Tiers: Mount Barker, South Australia, 1836-1886', The Australian Journal of Irish Studies v.1 2001 2001, pp.36-48.    Irish immigrants made little impact on the development of the Province of South Australia (SA) in its early years. However, by 1891 Roman Catholicism had become the dominant faith in four regions of the Colony, the Clare Valley, Gawler, northeastern Adelaide, and the Mount Barker region. This article traces the progress of Irish settlement in the Mount Barker region beyond the Mount Lofty Ranges, which were known as 'The Tiers'. Irish settlement was boosted by the Special Survey system established in 1839 and by the 'Irish South Australian Emigration Society'. Settler families established livelihoods in mining and agriculture, while large numbers of Irish immigrant women were employed in domestic and farm service. Supported by the clergy, Irish culture was institutionalized in the religious, educational and social life of Macclesfield. The impact of Irish settlement on SA is a tribute to the social investment of poor but generous spirited Irish settlers.

Hogan, C, 'Our Irish Brew', Sydney Morning Herald. Good Weekend2 Nov 1996, pp. [16]-21, [23].    This article assesses the impact of the largest ethnic group in Australia, the Irish, and discovers that many of Irish descent are keen to re-assert their cultural heritage. Outside Ireland, Australia is the most Irish country in the world. The article lists Australians with Irish connections, who are well known in business, politics and the arts. There is also a brief look at the earliest Irish immigrants to Australia. The article describes how Australians of Irish descent, today are rediscovering their roots by tracing ancestors and participating in Irish occasions. Some of those well known Australians discuss their visits back to their ancestral roots. The article concludes that there may well be some glamour attached to retracing one's Irish ethnicity.

Hogan, JF, The Irish in Australia, (London: Ward & Downey, 1887) [NMA RARE 305.89162 HOG] http://www.quinnipiac.edu/other/abl/etext/irish/australia/australianirishmain.html

'Howard Recalls Australia's Discrimination Against Irish', Australian National Review Apr 1999, pp.41.   In an address to a St Patrick's Day function in Melbourne, the Prime Minister, John Howard, said that although the Irish had helped shape modern Australia they were also discriminated against. For more that 100 years, the Irish in Australia, who were overwhelmingly Catholic, suffered the discrimination of paying for the education of their children in their faith. He maintained that at present, Australia has a system of openness and tolerance, and freedom of choice in relation to the education of its children that is second to none anywhere in the world. The Irish, according to Mr Howard, had contributed perhaps more than other immigrant groups to modern Australian life in fields such as football and politics.

Inglis, KS, The Australian Colonists: An Exploration of Social History, 1788-1870, (Carlton, Vic.: Melbourne University Press, 1974). [NMA 309.194 ING EDWARDS 994.02 ING]

Irish History Online - an authoritative guide (in progress) to what has been written about Irish history from earliest times to the present.

Johnson, Keith and others eds. The Irish Australians: Selected Articles for Australian and Irish Family Historians, (Sydney: Society of Australian Genealogists, 1984). [NMA F 929.1 IRI]

Kiernan, C ed. Ireland and Australia, (North Ryde, N.S.W.: Angus & Robertson, 1984). [NMA 305.89162 IRE]

Australia and Ireland 1788-1988: Bicentenary Essays, (Dublin: Gill and Macmillan, c1986) . [NMA 305.89162 AUS]

Lehane, R, Irish Gold: A Tale of Two Pioneer Families, (Charnwood, ACT: Ginninderra Press, 2002).

MacDonagh, O, 'Why Irish History for Australians?', Canberra Historical Journal(34), Sep 1994, pp.2-8.   The author contends that there is great value in understanding Irish history in Australia. Firstly, the scale of the Irish immigration to Australia makes it an area worthy of study. Relative to the size of the host society, the Irish, to quote the author, represented a prodigious Australian incursion. Secondly, the author believes that the timing of Irish immigration is another reason for the study of Irish history. Irish immigration was a constant throughout all the most formative stages of Australian development. Thirdly, Irish emigration to Australia reflected more or less the denominational proportions in Ireland, and it is vital to understand their derivations and peculiar cultural predisposition. Finally, the change in Ireland over the years 1780-1925 also effected change in Australia. The author looks at some of the different phases of Irish history from the 1780s to 1900 and illustrates what this meant for emigration to Australia.

The Sharing of the Green: A Modern Irish History for Australians, (St. Leonards, NSW: Allen and Unwin, 1996).   This book is designed for those Australians of Irish descent who would like to learn more of the history of their homeland. This modern history focuses on the period of Irish history when emigration was at its peak - 1790 to 1945. There is a special emphasis on religion, land protest, attitudes to authority, respectability, the imperial connection, and especially, politics. Over eight million Irish emigrated between 1788 and 1914. Only 500,000 of these settled in Australia. However, their influence extended far beyond their actual numbers. They were a founding people for Australia. The background to this group will help Australians to understand how their country developed historically.

Malcolm, E, '10,000 Miles Away: Irish Studies Down Under', In Harte,L and Y Whelan eds. Ireland Beyond Boundaries: Mapping Irish Studies in the Twenty-First Century, (London: Pluto Press, 2007), pp.32-45.

McClaughlin, T and L Connors, 'Irish Women, Aboriginal People, and the Law in Colonial Australia: Race, Power, and the Struggle for Inclusion', Australian Journal of Irish Studies v.4 2002, pp.135-143.    Irish women and Aboriginal people were among many groups considered 'problems' by both the state and society in 19th century colonial Australia. Colonialism in Australia and elsewhere fostered the development of a British, white, male cultural superiority complex that, both 'de facto' and 'de jure', excluded Indigenous people, Irish women and many minority ethnic groups. Selected cases from a research study that takes a postcolonial, subaltern approach to the experiences and interaction of Indigenous Australians and Irish women with the law in colonial Australia show how the law worked both to repress and protect the powerless, how minorities and individuals used the law to protect themselves, and how those in authority regularly reinvented racial and ethnic stereotypes. Over time, Irish-Australian women had a greater chance of being included in mainstream society than Aborigines, their interaction with the law possibly contributing to that process.

McConville, C, Croppies, Celts & Catholics: The Irish in Australia, (Caulfield East, Vic.: Edward Arnold, 1987). [NMA 994.0049162 MCC]

McIntyre, P, ''Reduced to Great and Deep Distress': Families Abandoned because of Transportation to New South Wales', Australian Journal of Irish Studies v.4 2002, pp.152-161.
      Many Irish women and children were left with no means of support when their husbands and fathers were transported to New South Wales (NSW). This article examines the plight of these families and their options for government or non-government assistance. Some wives, such as Julia Whitehill, were able to join their husbands in NSW under a policy of family reunion based on good behaviour by the convict husband and respectability and moral behaviour on the part of the abandoned wife. This policy continued for some years after the official end of transportation in 1840. However, as Ireland lacked a parish relief system and the Poor Law and workhouse system were introduced too late to help most convict families, those remaining behind were vulnerable to poverty, depending with variable success on the limited and selective charity of voluntary organisations or the support of relatives, landlords, neighbours and friends.

McKiernan, J ed. Speech by Senator McKiernan (WA) regarding the Irish Australian of the Year and Other Irish Issues: 9 Apr 1991, 1991) , 2114-2116 pp.   The Senator thanks the Irish community for his award as Irish Australian of the Year and he trusts that he will be able, as a member of Parliament, to serve the Irish community in Australia well and work towards their settlement and assimilation. The first Irish convict ship came to Australia 200 years ago and the Irish community is now thought to be more than one third of the Australian population. A benefit for Irish Australians now is the recent bilateral agreement between Australia and Ireland on social security. This agreement will operate to protect the rights of persons who have worked in Ireland and lived in Australia. Social security contributions paid in Australia can be counted towards benefits in either or both countries. (Comment is made regarding the Birmingham Six and the Guildford Four and capital punishment.)

Migration Museum [South Australia], From Many Places: The History and Cultural Traditions of South Australian People, (Kent Town, S. A.: Migration Museum (History Trust of South Australia) in association with Wakefield Press, 1995). [NMA 325.94 FRO]

Moloney, LW, 'Irish in Queensland', In Brandle, M and S Karas eds. Multicultural Queensland: The People and Communities of Queensland: A Bicentennial Publication, (Brisbane: Ethnic Communities Council of Queensland and the Queensland Migrant Welcome Association, 1988),
      John Finnegan was the first Irishman to come to Queensland. His arrival, on a ticket of leave, predates that of John Oxley (1823), whom he guided to Moreton Bay. Irish born Bishop Quinn became the first Catholic Bishop of Brisbane in 1861. He set up the Queensland Immigration Society which brought 3900 Irish immigrants to Queensland in the next two years. By 1901, 30 per cent of the population was Irish. By 1933, the proportion had been reduced to 2 per cent. The Irish have been prominent in Queensland politics, commerce, development and transport.

National Library of Australia. Friends Seminar and others, Ireland Over here Seminar: Friends of the National Library of Australia Seminar Proceedings, 5/6 October 1991, Ireland Over here 5/6 October 1991, (Canberra: National Library of Australia, 1991.    Discusses the impact of the Irish on the Australian way of life.

O'Farrell, P, 'Irish and Australia', Australian Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition edn, (Terrey Hills : N.S.W.: Australian Geographic, 1996), pp.1759-1761. [NMA REF 994.003 AUS 1996]

O'Farrell, P and R O'Farrell, Through Irish Eyes: Australian & New Zealand Images of the Irish 1788-1948, (Melbourne: Aurora Books, 1994). [NMA 305.89162094 OFA]

O'Farrell, P, 'A Pictorial Look at Irish Australia', The University of New South Wales Quarterly (26), March 1982, pp. 4-6.  The Irish have been one of Australia's most distinctive and influential immigrant minorities. Their contribution to Australian society has been so integral to national character as to be largely taken for granted. A collection of 400 photographs related to the history of the Australian Irish has been gathered together. The occasions which generated photography of active interest in revealing the Irish Australian community tended to be St Patrick's Day, welcomes to visiting Irish parliamentarians, and funerals such as that of the famous boxer Les Darcy in 1917.

'Wearing Out the Green [St. Patrick's Day Celebrations]', Irish Echo v.13 (6), 15 March 2000, pp.6, 9.     Historically, in Australia, St. Patrick's Day has long been a point at which the strength and nature of local Irishness, and the general community's reaction to it, might be assessed. This article traces the history of St. Patrick's Day celebrations around the world, with particular reference to Australia. It is argued that the annual festivities owe as much to Australian culture as to the Irish. In Ireland, St. Patrick's Day celebrations when held are modest; it has always been a diaspora day. The day tended, in countries where the Irish immigrated, to be a day on which the Irish drew attention to themselves and their role in host countries. The first celebration was held in Sydney in 1841 to demonstrate the respectability, loyalty and community spirit of affluent Irish who had been successful in Australian society. After a decline in the celebrations by 1914, there was a revival in 1979 by the Sydney Irish National Association surrounded by issues of the nature of the celebration and its control. These and questions as to the purpose of the day, what is being celebrated, by whom and for whom, perhaps do not matter.

O'Mahony, B and G Box, 'From Behind the Scenes to Behind the Bar: The Cultural Contribution of Migrant and Transitory Employees to Irish Theme Pubs', In Bertone,S and H Casey eds. Migrants in the New Economy: Problems, Perspectives and Policy, (Melbourne: Victoria University. Workplaces Studies Centre, 2000), pp.131-151.  The popularity of Irish theme pubs in Melbourne, Victoria has resulted in a major growth within this sector with a subsequent benefit to the Victorian economy. This study sought to identify the reasons why people are attracted to Irish pubs. The study found that the majority of respondents believed that a visit to an Irish theme pub provided an insight into Irish culture. In addition, most of the respondents identified Irish pub staff as an important component of the service experience. This is in contrast to the traditional role of migrants as 'back of house' staff in many hospitality establishments such as hotels. Irish pub operators indicated that current equal opportunity legislation was a barrier to the recruitment of Irish born employees. An examination of the legal issues involved suggests that Irish pub owners may be in a position to argue for an exemption from the legislation. (Edited author abstract)

Partington, G, The Australian Nation: Its British and Irish Roots, (Melbourne: Australian Scholarly Pub., 1994) . [NMA 306.0994 PAR]

Reid, R, 'Ireland Over here', National Library of Australia News v.1 (11), Aug 1991, pp.7-10.

'Keeping Faith with Ballyrush and Gortin: Rediscovering the Irish/ Australian Historical Landscape', Journal of the Australian Catholic Historical Society v.18 (1997), pp.11-24. <http://search.informit.com.au/fullText;res=APAFT;dn=980201673>.

Reid, R and P Nolan, 'Tracing Your Ancestors: Irish Ancestry', Annals Australia v.99 (3), Apr 1988, pp.28-30.

Ronayne , J, J Ronayne and J Ronayne , The Irish in Australia : Rogues and Reformers, First Fleet to Federation, (Camberwell, Vic.: Viking, 2003). [NMA 305.891620994 RON]      Presents a different and controversial perspective on the influence of a group of Irish graduates in Australia's colonial history and on the Australian story in general.

Ronayne, J, First Fleet to Federation: Irish Supremacy in Colonial Australia, (Dublin: Trinity College Dublin Press, 2002).

Ronayne, J and R Pascoe, The Irish Imprint in Australia, (Melbourne: Victoria University of Technology, 1994). This book is a collection of essays on the Irish contribution to Australian life. The chapters are as follows: Peace at last!, the current peace process in Northern Ireland; the Irish imprint in Australia; the Irish townscape of Colonial Melbourne; Sir Redmond Barry; Who was who among Irish-Australians; the Irish folksong in Australia; and a Bibliography of the Irish in Australia.

Rule, P, 'From Labourer to Gentleman: Social Mobility among Nineteenth Century Irish Immigrants to Geelong', In Irish-Australian Studies: Papers Delivered at the Sixth Irish-Australian Conference, July 1990, Bull,P, C McConville and N McLachlan eds (Melbourne: La Trobe University, 1990), 201-215 pp.  Present from the beginning of white colonisation, in sizeable numbers, wherever settlement occurred, the Irish were able to play a significant role in the formation of white Australian society, its politics and culture. In general, the Irish in Australia in Australia managed to straddle the boundaries between insiders and outsiders and to win for themselves social mobility and relative affluence. This paper explores the strategies a small group of Irish Australians who settled in Geelong, Victoria, employed to make this transition, and emphasises the rapidly changing Ireland they had grown up in. Generally, the picture is one of success. Whether or not Irish emigrants were originally of petit-bourgeois status, they became so in Australia. This paper analyses the success and failure of some Irish immigrants who settled around the Geelong area against this larger background.

Rutherford, J, 'The Irish Conceit: Ireland and the New Australian Nationalism', In Bull, P, F Devlin-Glass and H Doyle eds. Ireland and Australia, 1798-1998: Studies in Culture, Identity and Migration, (Sydney: Crossing Press, 2000), pp.196-207.   For over two decades the Australian nationalist tradition with its images of an honest, white, innocent Australia has been called into disrepute by the voices of multiculturalism, Indigenous Australia, cultural history, and feminism. This essay identifies the emergence of a new nationalism that seeks to reforge the nationalist tradition, to redeem Australian nationalism from its colonial taint. A mythical history of Ireland is deployed in new narratives of nation such as those expressed in One Nation Party discourse, which revives the 'fighting Irish' stereotype, and in novels such as Tim Winton's 1994 'The Riders'. These narratives seek to portray Irish Australians as victims of colonisation by drawing analogies between Aboriginal dispossession and Irish dispossession by the British. The article aims to close the comfortable but imaginary gap between One Nation and the rest of Australians, to probe the pervasiveness of Australian nationalism and its enjoyment by a far larger community.

Sheedy, K, 'From Convict Ship to Legislative Assembly [Progression of Irish Convict John Hurley to Member of the Legislative Assembly of New South Wales]', Australian Journal of Irish Studies v.4 2002, pp.29-37.    In 1824, John Hurley of County Limerick, Ireland was transported to New South Wales (NSW) for seven years for his part in a protest against high rents. After working for four years in the Male Orphan Institute in Liverpool, NSW and for two years for Irish settlers Captain Terence Murray and his son, Hurley gained his freedom and settled in the strongly Irish enclave of Campbelltown, NSW. Hurley became a prominent public figure and contributed significantly to Campbelltown's economic, social and political development. Successful in business as a publican, land-holder and racehorse breeder, Hurley was instrumental in establishing a Catholic church and school, mail and banking services, and roads and utilities. With the arrival of representative government, Hurley began a long and remarkable political career, first as a member of a district council, and subsequently as a member of the NSW Legislative Assembly, in which he was active into his eighties.

Twycross, J, 'History, Heritage and Identity: How Big-Picture History and Heritage Impacts on Identity for the Descendants of Ah Shin of Victoria', In Discoveries, Deadends and Databases. Proceedings of the 10th Australasian Congress on Genealogy and Heraldry (Melbourne Congress), Roy,Jed. Melbourne Convention centre (Melbourne: The Genealogical Society of Victoria, 2003). Family history and cultural heritage help define national identity. Many Chinese immigrants were not sojourners as widely believed, but became permanent, naturalised settlers who raised families, operated businesses and owned property. The Ah Shin family history illustrates the challenges of Chinese family history research and the complexity of notions of identity among the more than two thousand descendants of a Chinese-Irish union. Pan Ah Shin married Irish born Catherine Martin in Melbourne, Victoria in 1857 and the couple raised eight children on the Victorian goldfields before Catherine's early death in 1872. Most of the children and grandchildren married Chinese or Chinese-European partners. Although the preservation of Chinese tradition varies among descendants, generosity, gentleness, strength and a desire to be inconspicuous emerge as consistent family traits. From family history and reinforced family bonds emerges a clearer sense of heritage and identity, which in turn helps define the national image.

Whitton, E, 'Irish Revenge for Castle Hill (on the NSW-Ireland Rugby Match)', National Times (10-16 June 1979), 10-16 June 1979, pp. 32.

Return to Contents

Immigration

Abbasi-Shavazi, MJ and P McDonald, 'A Comparison of Fertility Patterns of European Immigrants in Australia with those in the Countries of Origin', Genus v.58 (1), 2002, pp.53-76.   Using 1991 Census data, this study compares first generation fertility patterns and levels among selected European immigrant groups in Australia from 1977-1991 with those in the countries of origin, with those of second generation immigrants, and with those of the Australian-born population. Five groups were studied intensively, the British-Irish, Dutch, Greeks, Italians and Poles. The findings are considered against five competing theories of the relationship between migration and fertility, the selectivity, disruption, adaptation, minority-status and 'cultural maintenance' hypotheses. The study found variations between groups but strong evidence of overall adaptation of immigrants to the fertility patterns of the total Australian population, although there was evidence of cultural maintenance in fertility patterns among Greeks and Italians. Complicating factors include selection of immigrants with lower fertility levels than those prevailing in their home countries, and the disrupting influence of the migration process itself, particularly for refugees groups such as the Poles.

Besnard, TP, A Voice from the Bush in Australia: Shewing its Present State, Advantages, and Capabilities in a Series of Letters from an Irish Settler and Others in New South Wales : With Appendices Containing Statistical Evidences, Information for Emigrants, the Course of Husbandry Suited to the Country, and Other Observations on that Important and Prosperous Colony, (Dublin: William Curry, 1839).

Campbell, M, 'Exploring Comparative History: The Irish in Australia and the United States', In Irish-Australian Studies: Papers Delivered at the Seventh Irish-Australian Conference, July 1993, (Sydney: Crossing Press, 1994), 342-354 pp.  This paper briefly surveys some recent historiography on the Irish in the United States, before turning to examine a comparison between the Irish in Australia and the United States. In Australia, most recent scholarship has tended to emphasise the relatively smooth adjustment of Irish immigrants in the nineteenth century. Yet in the United States, many historians continue to portray the Irish in a manner widely at variance with that of Australian studies. The author explores these differences and the reasons for them in this article.

'The Other Immigrants: Comparing the Irish in Australia and the United States', Journal of American Ethnic History v.14 (3), Spring 1995, pp.[3]-22.    This article draws upon recent scholarship on the Irish in Australia in order to highlight some of the stark differences between interpretations of Irish experience these and in the United States. It assesses the implications of the Australian example for the existing scholarship on the Irish in the United States and argues the need for the greater receptivity among United Staes scholars to the findings of studies of the Irish abroad than has hitherto been evident in the field.

Connolly, T, 'Emigration from Post-Independence Ireland to Australia, 1922-1970', Australian Journal of Irish Studies v.4: 2002, pp.202-206.  Numerous economic and social challenges in the Irish Free State following its independence in 1922 prompted high and increasing emigration for several decades until the Irish economy began to improve in the 1960s. The emigrants were predominantly young, unskilled or semi-skilled, and from rural areas. Although economic motives dominated reasons for emigration, social factors including chain migration were also important in decisions to emigrate. Britain and the United States (US) were the most popular destinations over the 50-year period, while emigration to Australia fell, breaking the trend of high Irish emigration to Australia that had obtained in the 19th century. Irish emigration to Australia increased slightly in response to the post-war assisted passage offer and the Irish economic depression of the late 1950s, but the existence of Irish networks in Britain outweighed the incentives to come to Australia.

Connors, L, 'The Politics of Ethnicity: Irish Orphan Girls at Moreton Bay', In Australian Studies: Papers Delivered at the Seventh Irish-Australian Conference, July 1993, Pelan,R ed. (Sydney: Crossing Press, 1994), 167-181 pp.  The Irish Migration Scheme resulted in over 4000 young women arriving in the Australian colonies between October 1848 and August 1850, the latter years of the Great Famine. This paper focuses on those Irish young women who were forwarded by the Sydney migration officials to what was then, the most northerly districts of New South Wales. The reception of these young women at Moreton Bay reveals some important insights into the nature of ethnic politics and the significance of those politics at the personal level. This paper draws together two approaches, that of the influence of sectarian politics and of social history, to show the way in which these young women successfully contested and negotiated the hostile environment in which they found themselves. Drawing on the operation of the law, and the appearance of some of these young women in the courtrooms in Brisbane, Connors provides some insights into the politics and experiences of these women in defending their rights and status. (Author abstract)

Curr, E and TE Wells, An Account of the Colony of Van Diemen's Land ... for the use of Emigrants, (London: George Cowie, 1824).

Fitzpatrick, D, 'Irish Immigrants in Australia: Patterns of Settlement and Paths of Mobility', Australia 1988(2), August 1979, pp.55-55-64.

Irish Emigration 1801-1921, (The Economic and Social History Society of Ireland: Dublin, 1984).    At least eight million Irish emigrated between 1801 and 1921. This booklet provides a profile of those who left Ireland, analyses the factors facilitating or impeding emigration and looks at the consequences for Ireland, and in more general terms, for the receiving countries. Findings include the facts that emigrants to Australia were more likely than average to be semi- skilled farm workers from counties Clare, Limerick and Tipperary; and government assistance from Australia, supplemented by personal remittance, was crucial in shaping Irish movement to Australia.

Fitzpatrick, D, ''Over the Foaming Billows’: The Organisation of Irish Emigration to Australia', In Richards,E, ed. Poor Australian Immigrants in the Nineteenth Century, (Canberra: Division of Historical Studies and Centre for Immigration and Multicultural Studies, Research School of Social Sciences, Australian National University, 1991), pp.133-152.

Fitzpatrick, D and D Fitzpatrick, Oceans of Consolation: Personal Accounts of Irish Migration to Australia, (Carlton, Vic.: Melbourne University Press, 1995). [NMA 994.0049162 OCE]

Groom, J, 'How the Family of Pan Thomas Ah Shin Became Settlers rather than Sojourners', In Chinese in Australia and the Pacific: Old and New Migrations and Cultural Change: Conference for the Study of Overseas Chinese: New Zealand Conference of ASCDAPI: Association for the Study of Chinese and their Descendants in Australasia and ……., 1998) <http://www.stevenyoung.co.nz/chinesevoice/ChinConf/S5.html> Most of the Chinese who came to Victoria in the mid 19th century were not altruistic. They saw no vision of Australia as their new home; they were sojourners, not settlers. This story, however, is of a young Chinese man named Pan Ah Shin who arrived in Victoria in 1848 and his wife Catherine Martin from Dublin, Ireland, and of their life during the gold rush. It describes many of the events that took place at that time, including some of the unrest among the gold prospectors. The paper goes on to outline the lives of the second and subsequent generations of the Ah Shin family and their contributions to the community. There are now about 1,800 descendants of Pan Ah Shin and Catherine Martin scattered about Victoria, and further afield, and they keep alive their long history of family solidarity.

Haines, RF, Emigration and the Labouring Poor: Australian Recruitment in Britain and Ireland, 1831-60, (MacMillan: London, 1997).  This book evaluates the origins, occupations, literacy and pre-departure experience of assisted immigrants from Britain and Ireland. It challenges the view that the British Government used government-assisted emigration to Australia as a means of shovelling out the criminal elements of its destitute poor. The book is arranged as follows: Chapter 1 places the story of government emigration to Australian in context. Chapter 2 focuses on the socio-economic characteristics and origins of the assisted immigrants. Chapter 3 canvasses the relationship between official agencies and private individuals. Chapters 4 and 5 survey the involvement of the English and Irish poor law authorities in recruitment and selection. Chapters 6 and 7 appraise ways in which colonisation societies, in line with charitable and religious organisations, not only saw assisted emigration as an important ingredient in imperial expansion, but were actively involved in the mobilisation of the poorer classes. Chapter 8 investigates the recruitment of destitute Scottish Highland and Islanders. Chapter 9 draws together the connecting threads, and gives some emigrants the opportunity to speak for themselves.

Jaunay, G, 'Bound for South Australia: A Study of the various Nineteenth Century Emigration Schemes and the Resultant Records', In Discoveries, Deadends and Databases: Proceedings of the 10th Australasian Congress on Genealogy and Heraldry (Melbourne Congress), Roy,J ed. Melbourne Convention Centre (Melbourne: Genealogical Society of Victoria, 2003).    A range of government and non-government fare assistance schemes operated in the 19th century to encourage British and European migrants from a wide range of backgrounds to settle in South Australia (SA). This article reviews the schemes and their associated records, highlights deficiencies in shipping and passenger records, and identifies alternative and complementary sources to fill information gaps. Government schemes including the Wakefield scheme and the South Australian Colonisation Commission scheme were based on landowners subsidising the passage of labourers. These schemes failed in practice but the principle of recruiting workers for wealthy landowners persisted throughout the period of colonial emigration into the 20th century. Non-government schemes helped German Lutherans, German miners, impoverished Scots and Irish famine orphans to settle in SA. Other information sources on assisted immigration include hospital records, newspapers and the Mary Hodge Index to arrivals. Current work to document every arrival in SA is also described.

Keneally, T, The Great Shame : A Story of the Irish in the Old World and the New, (London: Chatto & Windus, 1998).

Kiernan, Colm ed. Australia and Ireland 1788-1988: Bicentenary Essays, Dublin: Gill and Macmillan, c1986 , xviii, 309p.[NMA 305.89162 AUS]

McClaughlin, T, 'From 'Barefoot and Pregnant? Irish Famine Orphans in Australia', Melbourne 1991 [Extract from 'Barefoot and Pregnant? Irish Famine Orphans in Australia: Documents and Register' by Trevor McClaughlin]', In Hayes, A and D Urquhart eds. The Irish Women's History Reader, (London: Routledge, 2001), pp.168-173.   Although solid, detailed research on Irish female immigration to Australia has not yet been conducted, this extract from 'Barefoot and Pregnant? Irish Famine Orphans in Australia: Documents and Register' by Trevor McClaughlin (published in 1991) records some of the formal and anecdotal evidence on single young female Irish orphans who arrived in Victoria and South Australia (SA) during the 1850s. More than 600 young single women who arrived in Melbourne, Victoria and Adelaide (SA) were victims of the Great Famine and had been selected from among the inmates of Irish workhouses by government officials. Their reception in Australia was not as warm as they might have wished, and critics of the orphan emigration program were quick to voice their disapproval of the young women. The brief history offers some insights into the hardships the young women endured but also highlights the remarkable contributions they made to the Australian population and character.

Molloy, F, ''Affection's Broken Chain’: The Irish and Colonial Poetry', The Australian Journal of Irish Studies v.2 2002, pp.122-134.    This article explores attitudes of nineteenth century Irish immigrants towards their homeland and towards their adopted land of Australia, as expressed in poetry of the time. An Irish presence in Australian poetry can be dated to the early 1800s. The early poetry reflected two alternative responses to migration, restless rebellion that cannot shake off the homeland, and enthusiastic assimilation. Indeed, these themes recur in poetry throughout the colonial period. From the 1820s, Irish bushranger ballads celebrated rebellion of the convict Irish, and adaptations of Gaelic poetry glorified a distant land that contrasted with antipodean isolation and joylessness. By the late nineteenth century, nostalgia was accompanied by awareness of a new identity, a dual loyalty that proclaimed Ireland as their home but Australia as their country. The transfer of identity from Ireland to Australia was not yet contemplated, but by the 1880s the Irish Australian psyche had moved firmly towards integration.

Mongan, C, 'What Happened to the Orphan Girls? [Plight of the Irish Orphan Girls Brought to Australia in the Mid 1800s]', Tain: The Australian Irish Network (28), Dec 2003-Jan 2004, pp.14-17.    Between October 1848 and August 1850, more than 4,000 young Irish orphan girls were sent to Australia as part of a scheme to alleviate overcrowding in Irish workhouses. This article focuses on the plight of 108 of the young women who arrived on the 'Thomas Arbuthnot' and were sent to live in southern New South Wales (NSW). Although there was considerable controversy about the arrival of the orphans, they were unconditionally accepted by settlers in the Yass, NSW district. All were placed in suitable employment and many went on to make valuable contributions to the district. Indeed, the 'Thomas Arbuthnot' orphans helped to change perceptions of the orphans as 'useless trollops'. Although life in the colonies was hard by today's standards the girls enjoyed a better life than they would have had in the workhouses of post famine Ireland.

Moore, P, 'Half-Burnt Turf: Selling Emigration from Ireland to South Australia, 1836-1845', In Irish-Australian Studies: Papers Delivered at the Sixth Irish-Australian Conference, July 1990, Bull,P, C McConville and N McLachlanedsMelbourne (Melbourne: La Trobe University, 1990), 103-119.   Political economy was behind the unusually high profile of corporate sponsors of Irish investment capital into South Australian land, with associated emigration by labourers. Four distinct irons stoked the fire of Irish expatriation to South Australia between 1836 and the temporary end to assisted emigration in 1843. They were the South Australian Colonisation Commission, 1835-1842, the South Australian Protestant Emigration Community of 1837, the Irish South Australian Emigration Society of 1839 and its successors , and Colonel George Wyndham (1838-1840) and Sir Montague Lowther Chapman (1840-1853). Irish emigrants to South Australia comprised large numbers of skilled workers who were town dwellers with some capital. The injection of so many Irish imperial factors into South Australia's settlement rendered it for a time a 'New Anglo-Irish Province'.

Murphy, E, From the Blackwater Valley to the Old Mallee: An Irish/Australian Family and Community History, (East Melbourne, Vic: Elizabeth Murphy, 2006). [NMA 929.20994 MUR]

O'Brien, J and P Travers, The Irish Emigrant Experience in Australia, (Swords, Ireland: Poolbeg, 1991). [NMA 994.0049162 IRI]

O'Farrell, P, B Trainor and Ulster Historical Foundation, Letters from Irish Australia, 1825-1929, (Sydney: New South Wales University Press;Ulster Historical Foundation, 1984).

O'Mahony, C and V Thompson, Poverty to Promise: The Monteagle Emigrants, 1838-58, (Darlinghurst, N.S.W.: Crossing Press, 1994). [NMA 305.8916094 OMA]

Patrick, R and H Patrick, Exiles Undaunted: The Irish Rebels Kevin and Eva O'Doherty, (St Lucia, Qld: University of Queensland, 1989). [NMA 994.0049162 PAT]   Kevin (a brilliant doctor) and Eva (a popular poetess) O'Doherty left a stormy past of political dissent in Ireland in 1860 to immigrate to Australia. As a parliamentarian in 1867, Kevin introduced Queensland's first Health Act. Eva was the acclaimed Irish nationalist poet, 'Eva of the Nation'. He later became famous as a surgeon, parliamentarian and leader of the Catholic laity. A campaigner for Home Rule, he returned to Ireland in 1885 and witnessed the movement's defeat before returning to Australia.

Reid, R, ''that Famine is Pressing each Day More Heavily upon them’: The Emigration of Irish Convict Families to New South Wales, 1848-1852', In Richards,E, ed. Poor Australian Immigrants in the Nineteenth Century, (Canberra: Division of Historical Studies and Centre for Immigration and Multicultural Studies, Research School of Social Sciences, Australian National University, 1991), pp.69-96.

Reid, R, 'Some Basic 19th Century Irish Immigrant Records', Timespan (18), Mar 1985, pp.19-22.

'Green Threads of Kinship!: Aspects of Irish Chain/ Migration to New South Wales, 1820/ 1886', Familia v.2 (3), 1987, pp.47-56.

'The Coming of the Irish Orphan Girls to the Southern Tablelands March 1850', Canberra Historical Journal (29), Mar 1992, pp.22-27.

Reid, Richard and Keith Johnson eds. The Irish Australians: Selected Articles for Australian and Irish Family Historians, (Sydney: Society of Australian Genealogists and Ulster Historical Foundation, 1984).   A range of twelve articles which indicate the variety of contemporary interest in the Irish Australians. Titles include: A signpost to Irish-Australian state papers; The 'Queen' - 1st Irish convict ship to New South Wales; Convicts from Ireland 1788-1868; Sources for Irish-Australia genealogy in the Public Record Office of Northern Ireland; From Ballyduff to Boorowa - Irish assisted immigration to New South Wales, 1830-1896; John Flood - Fenian exile; Irish gravestone inscriptions and the genealogist; and Ireland over here - nineteenth century Irish immigrants in southern New South Wales.

Richards, Eric ed. Visible Women: Female Immigrants in Colonial Australia,( Canberra: Australian National University. Research School of Social Sciences. Division of Historical Studies and Centre for Immigration and Multicultural Studies, 1995).  This collection includes the following papers: Convict women and assisted female immigrants compared 1841 a turning point; glimpses of unassisted English women arriving in Victoria, 1860-1900; immigrant women in narratives of divorce; independent women - South Australia's assisted immigrants 1872-1939; and the unimportance of gender in explaining post-famine Irish emigration. Female immigration is seen as a crucial variable in the history of immigration to Australia and was a prominent factor in the design of the European population.

Richards, Eric 'Workers for Australia: A Profile of British and Irish Immigrants Assisted to New South Wales in 1841', Journal of the Australian Population Association v.15 (1), May 1998 1998, pp.1-33.     Convict transportation to New South Wales was terminated in 1841. It was swiftly replaced by a new population stock in the form of the greatest Australian immigration before the gold rushes. This profile of 20,000 British and Irish assisted migrants, based on individual-level data, establishes their age, sex, religious, educational and occupational characteristics. Their composition differed markedly from the existing colonial population and other migrant flows at the time. They reflected the recruiting methods of the time as well as the changing migration propensities in the British Isles. They constituted a new start in Australian demographic development. This article provides a reconstruction of the socio-economic characteristics of the 1841 migrants and as such a new mid-century benchmark for systematic comparisons with other migrant populations, within and beyond Australia, and in other periods. The article notes it is a contribution to the quantitative study of colonial society. (Author abstract)

Richards, Eric 'An Australian Map of British and Irish Literacy in 1841', Population Studies v.53 (3), Nov 1999, pp.345-359.  This contribution to the study of literacy transition in Britain, Ireland and Australia also touches on the relationship between literacy and international migration. Some 20,000 emigrants arrived in Australia in 1841 and their literacy is here established at the individual level, and then related to regional origins, occupations, religion, sex and family status in the British Isles. The new Australian data offer unusual evidence to juxtapose with the prevailing account of British and Irish literacy. The paper makes systematic comparisons of the immigrant evidence with existing literacy findings for the populations of England and Wales, of Ireland, and the colonial population of Australia in the year 1841. The results also show extraordinary similarity of rank orderings between the Australian data and the conventional sources. The results show that the immigrants were consistently more literate than the home and the receiving populations and indicate a substantial link between migration and literacy. (Author abstract)

Richards, Eric 'The First Mass Emigration from Ireland to Australia', The Australian Journal of Irish Studies v.2 2002, pp.166-184.  The greatest emigration to Australia before the gold rushes arrived under the Bounty Scheme in 1841. Although the scheme did not target Irish, 13,000 of the 20,000 immigrants were from Ireland. This article profiles the intake using statistical records of the immigrants' social, economic and family details, and seeks to explain the characteristics and substantial Irish proportion of the intake. The Irish intake of 1841 was remarkably literate, young, unencumbered, and had a high proportion of women. Financial assistance, gender and source region are shown to be significant factors in inducing emigration. As a pre industrial economy with excess agricultural labour, Ireland best met Australia's colonial labour requirements. The higher literacy levels of the immigrants, compared to the home population, suggests that impediments to pre Famine emigration were poverty and lack of knowledge and facilities. The 1841 emigration set the pattern for future free emigration from Ireland to Australia.

Richards, Eric Britannia's Children : Emigration from England, Scotland, Wales and Ireland since 1600, (London: Hambledon and London, 2004). "Britannia's Children is the first account of emigration from the British Isles as a whole, including England, Scotland and Ireland (Ireland being part of the Britain during the Great Famine and its classic age of emigration). Eric Richards traces the stages of this extraordinary movement from the days of Raleigh and the Mayflower to modern times, and shows the variety of motives that drove men and women to make the most momentous decisions of their lives. He also draws on a mass of examples of individual cases, voyages, destinations and fates."--BOOK JACKET.

Richards, E and others, Visible Immigrants: Neglected Sources for the History of Australian Immigration, (Canberra: Australian National University. Research School of Social Sciences.Deptartment of History and Centre for Immigration and Multicultural Studies, 1989. [NMA 304.894 RIC]

Rushen, E, Single and Free: Female Migration to Australia, 1833-1837, (Melbourne: Australian Scholarly Publishing, 2003). [NMA 352.2410994 RUS]     Over four years in the 1830s, 2,700 single women emigrated from Britain and Ireland to Australia under a scheme to redress the gender imbalance in the fledgeling colonies and alleviate poverty in the United Kingdom (UK). The government sponsored scheme was administered by the London Emigration Committee (LEC), formerly the Refuge for the Destitute, which successfully despatched fourteen ships from London, Dublin and Cork to Sydney, New South Wales (NSW), and Hobart and Launceston, Tasmania. Details of the scheme's administration, the voyages, and the women's diverse expectations and experiences show that the émigrés included many educated, skilled women and retrained destitute women, and counter criticisms that unaccompanied female emigration was not respectable and that the women were unsuitable for employment or marriage. However, the scheme was flawed by poor reception arrangements and lack of ongoing support for the women after arrival, and eventually discontinued in favour of family emigration.

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Military Connection

Campion, E, ‘Irish and Catholic and Australian’, The Sydney Papers v. 7 (2) Autumn 1995, 76-83. This article looks at what it meant to be Australian, for the Irish, from the time of federation through to the Second World War. It discusses the difficulty for Irish Catholics in feeling a belonging to the British Empire rather than to their new homeland Australia. Historically, the Australian national identity was not a separate entity but subsumed by a British identity. The author discusses the difficulty for the Australian Irish Catholics, particularly in relation to the conscription campaigns of 1916 and 1917, where there was division in Australia along Irish Catholic and British Protestant lines. The article concludes that over time, the Irish Catholics softened and became more comfortable about being part of the Empire.

Connor, J, 'Irish Soldiers in the 1st Australian Imperial Force', In Irish-Australian Studies: Papers Delivered at the Seventh Irish-Australian Conference, July 1993, Pelan,R ed. Brisbane (Sydney: Crossing Press, 1994), 319-324. Using information mainly collected from the Australian War Memorial, the author provides a picture of what Irishmen in the AIF were like and where they came from, and then gives brief outlines of four different Irishmen, Michael O' Callaghan, John O'Connor, Jack O'Donnell and Reverend Everard Digges La Touche, who joined the army in 1914. Ideas are offered as to why these men volunteered for the AIF since they were not conscripts, but chose to enlist. Motivational factors were: these were paid jobs, they offered trips to Europe, and they could fulfil the patriotic emotions of the volunteers.

Doyle, H, 'Allegations of Disloyalty at Koroit during World War I [Victoria]', In Bull,P, et al eds. Ireland and Australia, 1798-1998: Studies in Culture, Identity and Migration, (Sydney: Crossing Press, 1998), pp.165-176. Irish traditions are perpetuated in the district around Koroit, near Warrnambool, Victoria, and during World War I Irish sentiment characterised the politics of the area. Koroit, as elsewhere in Australia, was polarised over conscription between political beliefs, on the one hand, and religious and racial identity, on the other. This essay investigates stories, both told and untold, of incidents surrounding the recruitment drives and conscription debate in Koroit that highlight the sectarian fears and the antagonism between labour and conservative, between Catholic and Protestant, of country Victoria at the time. Oral accounts, newspaper reports and historical records of events at Koroit differ, reflecting different perspectives of the social and political background. The uncertainty of knowledge about Koroit's wartime experience contributes to its significance, suggesting that what the locals want to remember is not the divisions but rather the strength that Irish nationalism once had in the town.

Harrison, J, 'Governors, Gaolers and Guards: Irish Soldiers at Moreton Bay, 1824-42', In Irish-Australian Studies: Papers Delivered at the Seventh Irish-Australian Conference, July 1993, Pelan,R ed. Brisbane (Sydney: Crossing Press, 1994), 300-310. This paper looks at the Irish members of the six British foot regiments which administered the Moreton Bay penal settlement between 1824 and 1842. These regiments were the 4th, the 17th, the 28th, the 40th, the 57th and the 80th. By analysing the backgrounds of the Irish members of the foot regiments, Harrison provides case studies which reveal several similarities between the soldiers who had the responsibility of guarding convicts and the convicts themselves. Examples are: the Irish soldiers came from precisely the same townlands and parishes in Ireland as the convicts; both groups were serving in institutions, strictly bound by rules and regulations administered by the British government; and both had come to Australia under orders. Harrison cites many other similarities, and considers the implications of such similarities when assessing the relationship between the two groups. It would not have been unusual for some of them to have known each other in Ireland, and to continue their friendship at Moreton Bay. Because there were only two classes of people at Moreton Bay, Harrison suggests that some of the goodwill which existed there, could be attributed to the similarities between some of the governors, gaolers and guards and their prisoners due to shared Irish origins.

Moloney, L, 'The Queensland Irish Volunteers 1887-1898', Journal of the Royal Historical Society of Queensland v.16 (1), Feb 1996, pp.14-20. At the beginning of the 1890s, the Queensland Irish Volunteers had seven companies, a battalion staff, and a band. By the beginning of 1898, they had all voluntarily resigned. This article gives some insights into why they disbanded. There were three main reasons for the end of the Volunteers. The first was economic. The recessionary climate led to severe funding cuts in Australia's volunteer forces. The second reason was the use of volunteers to put down civil disturbances like the shearers' strike in 1891. The third and most important reason was the antagonism of Imperial officers in the force to volunteers at all levels.

Wilcox, C, 'Irish Volunteer and Militia Corps in Australia', In Irish-Australian Studies: Papers Delivered at the Seventh Irish-Australian Conference, July 1993, Pelan,R ed. Brisbane (Sydney: Crossing Press, 1994), 311-318. Before 1912, Australia's citizen army was divided into volunteer corps and militia corps. Militia were organised and paid for by governments, and volunteer corps were raised and, largely, paid for by citizen soldiers themselves and by the community with which they identified. Irish-Australians supported at least three corps in Australia's citizen army before World War 1. They did so for military and social reasons which are discussed in this paper, with varying degrees of loyalty to the Crown and to their new country, and in spite of growing doubts by non-Irish-Australians about the wisdom of public display of ethnic differences. Wilcox looks particularly at corps in Sydney, South Australia and Queensland.

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New South Wales

Ayres, P, Prince of the Church: Patrick Francis Moran, 1830-1911, (Carlton, Vic.: Meigunyah Press (Imprint of Melbourne University Press), 2007)

Besnard, TP, A Voice from the Bush in Australia: Shewing its Present State, Advantages, and Capabilities in a Series of Letters from an Irish Settler and Others in New South Wales : With Appendices Containing Statistical Evidences, Information for Emigrants, the Course of Husbandry Suited to the Country, and Other Observations on that Important and Prosperous Colony, (Dublin: William Curry, 1839).

Calderwood, G, 'A Question of Loyalty: Archbishop Daniel Mannix, the Australian Government and the Papacy, 1914-18.', Australian Studies (London, England) v.17 (2), Winter 2002, pp.55-94.

Cowburn, P, 'The Attempted Assassination of the Duke of Edinburgh, 1868', Royal Australian Historical Society Journal v.55 (1), 1969, pp.19-42. [NMA S 994 JOU*]

Donohoe, J H, The Catholics of New South Wales, 1788-1820 and their Families, (Sydney: Archives Authority of New South Wales, 1988).

Ford, PP, Cardinal Moran and the A.L.P : A Study in the Encounter between Moran and Socialism, 1890-1907, its Effects upon the Australian Labor Party, the Foundation of Catholic Social Thought and Action in Modern Australia, ([Melbourne]: Melbourne University Press, 1966). [NMA 261.80994 FOR]

Gapps, S, 'Performing the Unknown: The Re-Enactment of the 1804 Battle of Vinegar Hill. [the Combination of Live Performance and History can Work Wonders.]', History Australia v.1 (2), July 2004: 308-313. <http://search.informit.com.au/fullText;res=APAFT;dn=200406788>.

Grassby, A, Six Australian Battlefields: The Black Resistance to Invasion and the White Struggle Against Colonial Oppression, (North Ryde, N.S.W.: Angus and Robertson, 1988 .[NMA 994 GRA]       A history of events surrounding each battle is presented. Conflict between Aborigines and whites at the Hawkesbury River near Richmond Hill, Parramatta, Bathurst, Pinjarra and Battle Mountain are described. Two rebellions by whites at Vinegar Hill and Ballarat at the Eureka Stockade are also included. (LT)

Hall, B, A Nimble Fingered Tribe: The Convicts of the Sugar Cane, Ireland to Botany Bay, 1793, (Coogee, N.S.W.: B. Hall, 2002). [NMA 929.3944 HAL]

Hall, B, Death Or Liberty: The Convicts of the Britannia: Ireland to Botany Bay 1797, (Coogee, N.S.W.: B. Hall, 2006). [NMA 929.3944 HAL]

Harty, R, 'From Cork to Kempsey: An Irish Contribution to the Timing of Australian Federation', Australian Journal of Irish Studies v.4 2002, pp.117-126. Thomas and Ellen Clarke arrived in Australia in 1836 while Thomas was serving in the British army. After Thomas' army discharge in 1840, the Clarkes settled into a farming life, becoming with their children considerable landowners in the Macleay River area near Kempsey, New South Wales (NSW). Although Irish Roman Catholic and devoutly religious, the Clarkes were not assertively Irish and appear to have been significantly Anglicised through British army enculturation. Their youngest son, Francis, entered politics as a supporter of Federation, resigning his Hastings-Macleay seat in the Legislative Assembly to open the way for Edmund Barton to take the seat and lead the Federation movement in parliament. It is suggested that the work of people like Francis Clarke demonstrates that it was not the English who transformed Irish Australia after the 1840s, but waves of Irish immigrants equipped with English language, education and views of the primacy of politics.

Heaney, S, 'How the Vinegar Hill Rebels Set the New Country on a Voyage of Self-Discovery: [the 1804 Rebellion at Vinegar Hill Helped Set a Political Agenda for the New Colony]', Irish Echo (Balmain, NSW) v.17 (6), 11-24 Mar 2004, pp.9.

Keely, V, Dixon of Botany Bay: The Convict Priest from Wexford, (Strathfield, N.S.W.: St Pauls Publications, 2003). [NMA 282.415092 KEE] The remarkable story of James Dixon an Irish priest wrongly accused and convicted of taking part in the Irish Rebellion of 1798 and transported to Australia

MacDonald, DI, 'Henry James O'Farrell : Fenian Or Moonstruck Miscreant?', Canberra and District Historical Society Journal(3), Sep 1970, pp.1-13. [NMA S 994.7 JOU] The assassination attempt on the Duke of Edinburgh in 1868 may be of little importance in the history of the colony of New South Wales. Yet it is indicative of the sectarian bitterness which marred relations between Catholic and Protestant in those years. It illustrates, too, how the accused was found guilty by the press, by responsible citizens and the public before charges had been laid.

McIntyre, P, ''Reduced to Great and Deep Distress': Families Abandoned because of Transportation to New South Wales', Australian Journal of Irish Studies v.4 2002, pp.152-161. Many Irish women and children were left with no means of support when their husbands and fathers were transported to New South Wales (NSW). This article examines the plight of these families and their options for government or non-government assistance. Some wives, such as Julia Whitehill, were able to join their husbands in NSW under a policy of family reunion based on good behaviour by the convict husband and respectability and moral behaviour on the part of the abandoned wife. This policy continued for some years after the official end of transportation in 1840. However, as Ireland lacked a parish relief system and the Poor Law and workhouse system were introduced too late to help most convict families, those remaining behind were vulnerable to poverty, depending with variable success on the limited and selective charity of voluntary organisations or the support of relatives, landlords, neighbours and friends.

Moore, A, The United Irishmen and South-West Sydney: A Reconsideration of the Waldersee Thesis, (Sydney: Crossing Press, 2000). In 1974 James Waldersee published his pivotal account of Catholic society in colonial New South Wales (NSW). Waldersee argued that the relatively high concentration of Irish Catholics in south west Sydney, particularly Campbelltown, was largely attributable to the role of the colony's deputy surveyor general and United Irishmen rebel, James Meehan, in securing land grants for Irish settlers. This essay questions the influence of James Meehan, known as Jimmy Mane, on Irish settlement, and discusses other factors in settlement patterns that have been identified by other scholars of Irish Australian history. These include the role of the magistracy and the encouragement of farming in south west Sydney as an alternative to the Hawkesbury region at a time when many United Irishmen were granted tickets of leave or pardons. It is claimed that Meehan's role was primarily to show how material prosperity and land ownership could mute the antagonisms of 1798.

Moore, A, 'Another Wild Colonial Boy?: Francis De Groot and the Harbour Bridge', Australian Journal of Irish Studies v.2, 2002, pp.135-148.[NMA Available online through Informit http://search.informit.com.au/fullText;res=APAFT;dn=200306731]

Moore, A, 'Phil Cunningham: A Forgotten Irish-Australian Rebel [this is the Text of a Presentation Delivered at 'Remembering Vinegar Hill' Seminar, Blacktown City Council, 7 March 2004.]', Hummer (Sydney) v.4 (2), Winter 2004, pp.7-12. <http://search.informit.com.au/fullText;res=APAFT;dn=200409924>

Moore, A, Francis De Groot: Irish Fascist, Australian Legend, (Annandale, N.S.W.: Federation Press, 2005). [NMA 320.53309441 MOO] The first biography on Francis de Groot who became part of Australian folklore for his part in the opening of Sydney Harbour Bridge 1932. This story of the Bridge opening in all its colourful detail sheds new light on the bizarre circumstances that had brought New South Wales to the brink of civil war, and on de Groot himself.

Murray, R, 'Sydney's Brush with Bonaparte', Quadrant (Sydney) v.48, no.1-2, Jan-Feb 2004: 34-41. <http://search.informit.com.au/fullText;res=APAFT;dn=200400670; http://www.quadrant.org.au/php/archive_details_list.php?article_id=584> [NMA S 052 QUA]

O'Farrell, P, 'Dreaming of Distant Revolution: A. T. Dryer and the Irish National Association, Sydney, 1915-1916', Journal of the Royal Australian Historical Society v.69 (3), December 1983, pp.145-160.

Orchiston, W, 'John Tebbutt of Windsor, New South Wales; a Pioneer Southern Hemisphere Variable Star Observer.', Irish Astronomical Journal v.27 2000, pp.47-54.

Reece, B, The Origins of Irish Convict Transportation to New South Wales, (Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave, 2001).   "This study explores the pre-history of Irish convict transportation to New South Wales which began with the Queen in April 1791. It traces earlier attempts to revive the trans-Atlantic convict trade and the frustrated efforts by Irish authorities to join in the Botany Bay scheme after 1786. The nine Irish shipments to North America and the West Indies are described in detail for the first time, including the dramatic outcomes in Nova Scotia, Newfoundland and the Leeward Islands which eventually forced the Home Office to find space for Irish convicts on the Third Fleet. These events are related against the background of Dublin's burgeoning crime rate in the 1780s, the critical insecurity of its prison system and the troubled political relationship between Ireland and Britain."--BOOK JACKET.

Reid, R, ''That Famine is Pressing each Day More Heavily upon them' : The Emigration of Irish Convict Families to New South Wales, 1848-1852', In Richards,E, ed. Poor Australian Immigrants in the Nineteenth Century, (Canberra: Division of Historical Studies and Centre for Immigration and Multicultural Studies, Research School of Social Sciences, Australian National University, 1991), pp.69-96.

Reid, R, 'Green Threads of Kinship!: Aspects of Irish Chain Migration to New South Wales, 1820/ 1886', Familia v.2 (3), 1987, pp.47-56.

'The Coming of the Irish Orphan Girls to the Southern Tablelands March 1850', Canberra Historical Journal (29), Mar 1992, pp.22-27.

Reid, Richard and Keith Johnson eds. The Irish Australians: Selected Articles for Australian and Irish Family Historians, Sydney: Society of Australian Genealogists and Ulster Historical Foundation, 1984.    A range of twelve articles which indicate the variety of contemporary interest in the Irish Australians. Titles include: A signpost to Irish-Australian state papers; The 'Queen' - 1st Irish convict ship to New South Wales; Convicts from Ireland 1788-1868; Sources for Irish-Australia genealogy in the Public Record Office of Northern Ireland; From Ballyduff to Boorowa - Irish assisted immigration to New South Wales, 1830-1896; John Flood - Fenian exile; Irish gravestone inscriptions and the genealogist; and Ireland over here - nineteenth century Irish immigrants in southern New South Wales.

Sheedy, K, 'From Convict Ship to Legislative Assembly [Progression of Irish Convict John Hurley to Member of the Legislative Assembly of New South Wales]', Australian Journal of Irish Studies v.4 2002, pp.29-37.     In 1824, John Hurley of County Limerick, Ireland was transported to New South Wales (NSW) for seven years for his part in a protest against high rents. After working for four years in the Male Orphan Institute in Liverpool, NSW and for two years for Irish settlers Captain Terence Murray and his son, Hurley gained his freedom and settled in the strongly Irish enclave of Campbelltown, NSW. Hurley became a prominent public figure and contributed significantly to Campbelltown's economic, social and political development. Successful in business as a publican, land-holder and racehorse breeder, Hurley was instrumental in establishing a Catholic Church and school, mail and banking services, and roads and utilities. With the arrival of representative government, Hurley began a long and remarkable political career, first as a member of a district council, and subsequently as a member of the NSW Legislative Assembly, in which he was active into his eighties.

Silver, LR, The Battle of Vinegar Hill: Australia's Irish Rebellion 1804, (Sydney: Doubleday, 1989). [NMA 364.13109944 SIL]

Symes, JG, The Castle Hill Rebellion of 1804, Revised ed, ([Castle Hill]: Hills District Historical Society, 1990).

Tobin, GM, 'The sea-divided gael: A study of the Irish home rule movement in Victoria and New South Wales, 1880-1916', (Master of Arts, Australian National University, 1969).

Waldersee, J, Catholic Society in New South Wales, 1788-1860, (Sydney: University of Sydney Press, 1974). [NMA 282.944 WAL]

Whitaker, A, 'Swords to Ploughshares?: The 1798 Irish Rebels in New South Wales', Labour History(75), Nov 1998, pp.9-21.

<http://search.informit.com.au/fullText;res=APAFT;dn=200004706>

Whitaker, A, 'Irish Republican Support Activities in Sydney, 1969-1994', Australian Journal of Irish Studies v.3 2003, pp.79-90.    Irish Republican activism in Australia dates from the transportation of Irish rebels after the 1798 rebellion, and includes the activities of the Young Irelanders of 1848 and the Fenians of the 1860s. The most recent phase of the struggle for a united Ireland commenced with the arrival of British troops in the north of Ireland in 1969. From 1969 to 1994, Irish Australian organisations including the Irish National Association (INA), Sean South-Fearbal O'Hanlon Society, Irish Civilian Relief Association (ICRA) and Australian Irish Congress (AIC) organised protests and rallies, held fund-raising events, brought Irish Republican speakers to Australia, and supported a hunger strike campaign. Although Australian Irish Republican support was not as important financially as that of the United States (US), Irish Republican activism in Australia from 1969 to 1994 was more widespread and prolonged than has been credited, and important in promoting international solidarity among the Irish diaspora.

Whiting, B, Victims of Tyranny: The Story of the Fitzgerald Convict Brothers, (Strathfield, N.S.W.: Harbour Publishing, 2004). [NMA 994.020922 WHI]

Wright, B and Australian Broadcasting Corporation, In the Name of Decent Citizens: The Trials of Frank De Groot, (Sydney: ABC Books for the Australian Broadcasting Corporation, 2006). [NMA 320.533099441 WRI]

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Notables and Notorious

There are obviously many other ‘notable or notorious’ people of Irish descent, and not all could be named here. This is a representative sample. Not included is the most notorious of them all, Ned Kelly. The literature is huge, and recording any here would be redundant.

Ayres, P, Prince of the Church: Patrick Francis Moran, 1830-1911, (Carlton, Vic.: Meigunyah Press (Imprint of Melbourne University Press), 2007). [NMA 282.092 AYR]

Bonyhady, T, Burke & Wills: From Melbourne to Myth, (Balmain, N.S.W.: David Ell Press, 1991). [NMA 919.40431 BON]

Byrne, NJ, 'Writing Robert Dunne: Brisbane's First Catholic Archbishop', In Irish-Australian Studies: Papers Delivered at the Seventh Irish-Australian Conference, July 1993, Pelan,R ed. Brisbane (Sydney: Crossing Press, 1994), 197-205 pp.    The author has written a biography entitled Robert Dunne, 1830-1917: Archbishop of Brisbane. Dunne had been viewed by his peers as a man who was something of a disappointment, but when local studies of various aspects of the Queensland Catholic experience began to appear in the late 1960s and 70s, a different picture of Robert Dunne emerged. Dunne was a prolific writer and his personal papers comprised informed social commentary and personal and spiritual reflection. Byrne, in this article, describes the Robert Dunne that he discovered in the research for his book. Underlying all Dunne's official attitudes and actions was his own unhappy experience of family life as a boy and as a young priest in Ireland. This made him sensitive to the challenges facing all families. In Australia, he searched for a new sense of belonging. When he became Archbishop of Brisbane, he promoted social policies which would improve Catholic social progress, teaching his people the values of sobriety, thrift, and tolerance. Prison chaplaincy was also a high priority, as was the development of Catholic education.

Calderwood, G, 'A Question of Loyalty: Archbishop Daniel Mannix, the Australian Government and the Papacy, 1914-18.', Australian Studies (London, England) v.17 (2), Winter 2002, pp.55-94.

Cameron, J, 'George Fletcher Moore [Influential Member of 19th Century Western Australian (WA) Elite]', Studies in Western Australia History (20), 2000, pp.21-34. [NMA S 994.1 STU]      The roles of George Fletcher Moore, a key figure in early Western Australia's (WA) ruling elite, included author, landowner, merchant, explorer, lawyer, legislator, poet, musician, and pioneer interpreter of Aboriginal language and customs. Confident, outgoing and determined to succeed, he was intolerant of weakness. Born in Ireland in 1798, Moore emigrated to WA in 1830 and claimed his land entitlements. This article traces Moore's life from developing Upper Swan agriculture and exploring the hinterland, with Aboriginal assistance, through his judicial career from 1832, to his political activity as Legislative Council member. While recognising Aboriginal prior occupation of the land, Moore unsuccessfully tried to teach them Christian principles. Despite the deepening 1840s depression, Moore maintained that colonists would prosper by simple living, hard work and financial prudence. He returned to Ireland for his wife's mental health and, after her death in 1863, he moved to London where he died in 1886.
.

Chetkovich, J, 'Not for Economic Gain: Elsie Butler in Western Australia [Individual Experiences of Elsie and George Butler, Irish Emigrants to Western Australia (WA)]', Studies in Western Australia History (20), 2000, pp.151-167. [NMA S 994.1 STU]     Documentary sources and historical analysis provide a picture of migration, but studies of ordinary individuals' experiences uncover more of the story of Irish emigration and the experience of the receiving country. Oral history reveals insights not accessible through any other source. In the story of Elsie Butler's emigration, cultural rather than economic issues are represented as the dominant factors. Religious tension, or the potential for it, was the major reason why Elsie Butler and her husband George left Ireland for Western Australia (WA) in 1958. As Irish Protestants, they were unaware that the majority of Irish migrants to Australia had always been Catholic, so they stayed outside Irish networks. The central liberating theme of their immigration experience was that they chose their friends due to mutual interest, not class, religion or family. Physical mobility accompanied their social mobility and the Butlers worked and lived in many remote areas of WA.

Collins, P, Hell's Gates: The Terrible Journey of Alexander Pearce, Van Dieman's Land Cannibal, (South Yarra, Vic.: Hardie Grant Books, 2002. [NMA 365.6092 COL]

Colwell, M, The Journey of Burke and Wills, (Sydney: Paul Hamlyn, 1971). [NMA 919.40431 COL]

Davis, RP, Revolutionary Imperialist: William Smith O'Brien 1803-1864, (Darlinghurst, N.S.W: Crossing Press, 1998) [NMA 941.5081 DAV]

Fenton, P, Les Darcy: The Legend of the Fighting Man, (Chippendale, N.S.W.: Ironbark, 1994). [NMA 796.83092 FEN]

Fitzsimons, P, The Ballad of Les Darcy, (Pymble, NSW: HarperCollins, 2007).

From Tent to Parliament: The Life of Peter Lalor and His Coadjutors: History of the Eureka Stockade, (Ballarat [Vic.]: Berry, Anderson & Co., 1934). [NMA RARE 994.50924 FRO]

Galbaly, A, Redmond Barry: An Anglo-Irish Australian, (Carlton, Vic.: Melbourne University Press, 1995) [NMA 347.9450350924 GAL and EDWARDS 347.9450350924 GAL]

Glover, M, A MacLochlainn and Tasmanian Historical Association, Letters of an Irish Patriot: William Paul Dowling in Tasmania, (Sandy Bay, Tas.: Tasmanian Historical Research Association, 2005). [NMA 994.6031 LET]

Hardwick, G, 'The Irish R.M.: Capt. John Molloy of the Vasse', Studies in Western Australia History(20), 2000, pp.1-20. [NMA S 994.1 STU]      This article explores the life of the enigmatic Captain John Molloy, a senior administrative official in the Vasse, Western Australia (WA). Accounts of his parentage and upbringing in England vary. His military career began at the age of 13 and continued from his first naval commission in 1804 until emigration to WA in 1829. Appointed Government Resident for the Sussex District, and Magistrate and Collector of Customs at Augusta, he dealt with stealing, murder and drunkenness among whaling and sealing ships' crews visiting the WA coast. Relations with Indigenous Bibbulmen and Wardandi peoples were characterised by the violence and retribution which accompanied white settlers taking possession of traditional lands. During the 1840s and 1850s, Molloy ruled his small world as a benign autocrat. After his wife's death in 1843, he remained at Augusta and survived her by 24 years. Molloy owned large tracts of land and died a wealthy man.

Kiernan, Colm ed. Australia and Ireland 1788-1988: Bicentenary Essays, (Dublin: Gill and Macmillan, c1986). [NMA 305.89162 AUS]

Luscombe, T, Builders and Crusaders, ([Melbourne]: Landsdowne Press, 1967). [NMA 282.94 LUS]

MacDonald, DI, 'Henry James O'Farrell: Fenian Or Moonstruck Miscreant?', Canberra and District Historical Society Journal(3), Sep 1970, pp.1-13. [NMA S 994.7 JOU]     The assassination attempt on the Duke of Edinburgh in 1868 may be of little importance in the history of the colony of New South Wales. Yet it is indicative of the sectarian bitterness which marred relations between Catholic and Protestant in those years. It illustrates, too, how the accused was found guilty by the press, by responsible citizens and the public before charges had been laid.

McEwan, M, Great Australian Explorers, Revised edition, (Sydney: Bay Books, 1987). [NMA 919.404 MCE]

Mitchel, J and P O'Shaughnessy, The Gardens of Hell: John Mitchel in Van Diemen's Land 1850-1853, (Kenthurst, N.S.W.: Kangaroo Press, 1988). [NMA 941.50810924 MIT]

Moore, A, 'Another Wild Colonial Boy?: Francis De Groot and the Harbour Bridge', Australian Journal of Irish Studies v.2, 2002, pp.135-148. [NMA Available online through Informit http://search.informit.com.au/fullText;res=APAFT;dn=200306731]

Moore, A, Francis De Groot: Irish Fascist, Australian Legend, (Annandale, N.S.W.: Federation Press, 2005). [NMA 320.53309441 MOO]     The first biography on Francis de Groot who became part of Australian folklore for his part in the opening of Sydney Harbour Bridge 1932. This story of the Bridge opening in all its colourful detail sheds new light on the bizarre circumstances that had brought New South Wales to the brink of civil war, and on de Groot himself.

Mulcahy, CM, 'Mulcahy Bros. [Reknowned Irish Family Firm in 19th Century Western Australia (WA)]', Studies in Western Australia History(20), 2000, pp.81-93. [NMA S 994.1 STU]      Around 1900, the 'Mulcahy Bros.' firm was well known in Western Australia (WA) and this Catholic Irish family provided leadership and solidarity within the church and community. The first female Mulcahy emigrated to Australia in 1865 and settled in Queensland. Other family members followed as remittance or nominated passengers and some went to WA to prospect for gold. The role of the matriarch, not exclusively Irish, emerged as social and economic conditions left the female to rear the family in the male's absence. With competition for licences reduced by the temperance movement, the Mulcahys, like other Irish immigrants, moved into the hotel and catering trade. Their successful business ventures enabled the Mulcahys to be benefactors and founders of clubs in Fremantle, WA and the goldfields. They became involved in livestock, agriculture and later, racehorses. The extended Mulcahy family represented migrants seeking a better life and adapting effectively to Australian life.

Murgatroyd, S, The Dig Tree: The Story of Burke and Wills, (Melbourne: Text Publishing, 2003). [NMA 919.40431 MUR]     Burke and Wills are as legendary as Ned Kelly or Gallipoli in the Australian consciousness - in 1860, they set out from Melbourne to cross the continent for the first time. With extraordinary endurance and courage, they succeeded, only to perish at Cooper Creek. A gripping account of their travails, with new historical evidence.

O'Donnell, R, 'Michael Dwyer : Wicklow Chief and Irish-Australian Hero', In Irish-Australian Studies: Papers Delivered at the Seventh Irish-Australian Conference, July 1993, Pelan,R ed. Brisbane (Sydney: Crossing Press, 1994), 206-217.       Michael Dwyer has the status of Australia's premier Irish hero figure. The most dramatic representation of this status within Australia is his tomb, Waverley Cemetery's Patriot's Monument which commemorates heroes of the 1798 Rebellion. This biographical article traces his involvement with the United Irishmen and the events of the Rebellion. Many accounts have been written of Michael Dwyer, and his literary potential as a figure of romance and adventure attracted much interest from poets, travel writers and novelists who used the material offered by his countless escapes and magnanimous acts which had made him a folk hero in Wicklow. In 1805, he was transported to New South Wales and in 1806, he became one of the leading members of the Irish community and associated with other successful compatriots. He remained in Australia until his death in 1898.

O'Donnell, R and B Reece, ''A Valuable Man' : James Meehan, United Irishman', In Bull,P, F Devlin-Glass and H Doyle eds. Ireland and Australia, 1798-1998: Studies in Culture, Identity and Migration, (Sydney: Crossing Press, 2000), pp.48-63.     James Meehan was a United Irishmen rebel who was convicted of treason in 1798 and rose from Irish Australian convict to become the deputy surveyor general of colonial New South Wales (NSW). This essay explores why, in spite of his considerable material achievements, Meehan, known as Jimmy or Jemmy Mane, is almost forgotten in Australian historical writing, and argues that the significance of his Irish and colonial careers has not been fully appreciated. Meehan's role in the United Irishmen is summarised. In NSW, Meehan avoided any involvement in United Irish politics, and his education, surveying skills, integrity and energy made him invaluable to successive governments for almost 20 years.

Orchiston, W, 'Illuminating Incidents in Antipodean Astronomy: John Tebbutt and the Great Comet of 1861', Irish Astronomical Journal v.25 1998, pp.167-178.

Orchiston, W, 'John Tebbutt of Windsor, New South Wales; a Pioneer Southern Hemisphere Variable Star Observer.', Irish Astronomical Journal v.27 2000, pp.47-54.

Park, R and R Champion, Home before Dark, (Ringwood, Vic.: Viking, 1995). [NMA 796.83092 PAR]

Partlon, A, 'Champion of the Goldfields: John Waters Kirwan [Influential Newspaper Editor and the First Federal Member for Kalgoorlie, Western Australia (WA)]', Studies in Western Australia History(20), 2000, pp.94-116. [NMA S 994.1 STU]      Born into a prosperous and political Irish family in Liverpool, England in 1869, John Waters Kirwan emigrated to Australia in 1889. In 1895 he became editor of the newly established 'Kalgoorlie Miner'. The newspaper prospered and exercised powerful political influence. Kirwan campaigned for miners and became involved in the alluvial rights dispute of 1898. Subsequently, Kirwan lost his bid for a Legislative Council seat and the paper successfully defended a libel suit. As 1900 approached, constitutional debate preoccupied the nation. 'Separation for Federation' was the cry of the 'Miner' for the goldfields to join the Federation as an independent State if 'Westralia' would not. After the overwhelming vote for Federation, Kirwan became the first Federal member for Kalgoorlie, Western Australia (WA) then an Independent in the Legislative Council for 38 years. Since his death in 1949, historians have unsuccessfully attempted to diminish his pivotal role in the WA Federal movement.

Patrick, R and H Patrick, Exiles Undaunted: The Irish Rebels Kevin and Eva O'Doherty, (St Lucia, Qld: University of Queensland, 1989). [NMA 994.0049162 PAT]      Kevin (a brilliant doctor) and Eva (a popular poetess) O'Doherty left a stormy past of political dissent in Ireland in 1860 to immigrate to Australia. As a parliamentarian in 1867, Kevin introduced Queensland's first Health Act. Eva was the acclaimed Irish nationalist poet, 'Eva of the Nation'. Van Diemen's Land. He later became famous as a surgeon, parliamentarian and leader of the Catholic laity. A campaigner for Home Rule, he returned to Ireland in 1885 and witnessed the movement's defeat before returning to Australia.

Petrow, S, 'Island Prison: John Mitchel in Van Diemen's Land', Australian Journal of Irish Studies v.3 2003, pp.62-78.      John Mitchel was an Irish rebel who was transported to Van Diemen's Land (Tasmania) in 1849. This article analyses Mitchel's experiences as an Irish Exile and his responses to them, as recorded in his 'Jail Journal'. 'Jail Journal' is considered important on many levels, having been a source of strength for Mitchel, and now providing a literate and insightful historical political and social commentary and a symbolic statement of Irish determination and defiance. Although Mitchel resented captivity, he adjusted to his new surroundings and developed an environmental awareness. Holding strong anti-transportation views, Mitchel distinguished himself from the convicts, whom he considered were too well-treated. Eventually able to bring his family out and establish a farm, he enjoyed comparative liberty in the companionship of fellow Irish Exiles. However, Mitchel longed for true liberty and tired of the Englishness of Van Diemen's Land, and escaped to the United States (US) in 1853.

Reid, R and A Fitzgerald, 'Ireland and Australia -Series of 2 Parts-: Part 1: Irish/ Australians since 1788 have been Famous and Infamous. Part 2: Irish Links with the Canberra District', Canberra Times, 4 June 1985: 10 4 June 1985: 11 1985.

Reid, Richard and Keith Johnson eds. The Irish Australians: Selected Articles for Australian and Irish Family Historians, (Sydney: Society of Australian Genealogists and Ulster Historical Foundation, 1984).      A range of twelve articles which indicate the variety of contemporary interest in the Irish Australians. Titles include: A signpost to Irish-Australian state papers; The 'Queen' - 1st Irish convict ship to New South Wales; Convicts from Ireland 1788-1868; Sources for Irish-Australia genealogy in the Public Record Office of Northern Ireland; From Ballyduff to Boorowa - Irish assisted immigration to New South Wales, 1830-1896; John Flood - Fenian exile; Irish gravestone inscriptions and the genealogist; and Ireland over here - nineteenth century Irish immigrants in southern New South Wales.

Rule, P, 'Honora and Her Sisters: Success and Sorrow among Irish Immigrant Women in Colonial Victoria', In Irish-Australian Studies: Papers Delivered at the Seventh Irish-Australian Conference, July 1993, Pelan,R ed. Brisbane (Sydney: Crossing Press, 1994), 151-160 pp.      By focusing on thirteen Irish women who arrived in Victoria in the late 1840s and 1850s and settled in Geelong, Pauline Rule aims to explore the diversity of the Irish female migrant experience, reconstituting its little stories rather than constructing a meta-narrative which symbolises women as bearers of tradition. The non-traditional nature of the activites of these Irish women settlers is described by considering their individual life histories. The most easily recovered story was that of Honora Hourigan, who, according to Rule, was a strong and capable woman, a widow who raised a large family and had a public persona as a business-woman and landlord. Other Irish women in Rule's study are: Ellen Cummins, Mary Davoren, Mary Dunn, Margaret Shanahan, Catherine Broderick, Penelope Dunn, Mary Gleeson, Bridget Dunn, Margaret Dunn, Anne Keegan, Ellen Hayes and Margaret Burke.

Sheedy, K, 'From Convict Ship to Legislative Assembly [Progression of Irish Convict John Hurley to Member of the Legislative Assembly of New South Wales]', Australian Journal of Irish Studies v.4 2002, pp.29-37.      In 1824, John Hurley of County Limerick, Ireland was transported to New South Wales (NSW) for seven years for his part in a protest against high rents. After working for four years in the Male Orphan Institute in Liverpool, NSW and for two years for Irish settlers Captain Terence Murray and his son, Hurley gained his freedom and settled in the strongly Irish enclave of Campbelltown, NSW. Hurley became a prominent public figure and contributed significantly to Campbelltown's economic, social and political development. Successful in business as a publican, land-holder and racehorse breeder, Hurley was instrumental in establishing a Catholic church and school, mail and banking services, and roads and utilities. With the arrival of representative government, Hurley began a long and remarkable political career, first as a member of a district council, and subsequently as a member of the NSW Legislative Assembly, in which he was active into his eighties.

Swanwick, R, Les Darcy : The Legend , Champion of Champions, ([Sydney ?]: R. Swanwick, 1994). [NMA 796.83092 SWA]

Williams, P, Matthew Brady and Ned Kelly: Kindred Spirits, Kindred Lives, (North Melbourne, VIic.: Arcadia, 2007). [NMA 364.1552 WIL]

Wright, B and Australian Broadcasting Corporation, In the Name of Decent Citizens: The Trials of Frank De Groot, (Sydney: ABC Books for the Australian Broadcasting Corporation, 2006). [NMA 320.533099441 WRI]

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Politics and Law

Ainsworth, J, 'Thomas Fitzgerald, the Irish National Association of Queensland and Australian National Security, 1916-21', Australian Journal of Irish Studies v.5 2005, pp.66-80. http://search.informit.com.au/fullText;res=APAFT;dn=200606808>.

Brennan, G, 'The Irish and the Law in Australian', Irish Jurist v.21 1986.

Calderwood, G, 'A Question of Loyalty: Archbishop Daniel Mannix, the Australian Government and the Papacy, 1914-18', Australian Studies (London, England) v.17 (2), Winter 2002, pp.55-94.

Campbell, R, 'Irish Lawyers in the Port Phillip District and Victoria 1838-1860', In Irish-Australian Studies: Papers Delivered at the Sixth Irish-Australian Conference, July 1990, Bull,P, C McConville and N McLachlaneds (Melbourne: La Trobe University, 1990), 39-50. The early lawyers who came from Ireland to the Port Phillip District and Victoria added life and colour to the place. William Foster Stawell won a steeplechase, and Redmond Barry engaged in illegal duelling. The appointment of another Irish barrister to the Supreme Court bench in 1856 raised the Irish composition of the bench to half. Another appointment in February 1857 raised the Irish composition to three quarters of the Bench. The Irish judges and others helped create the sort of peaceful society and security so necessary for development. As far as the court system goes one Irish influence was the St Patrick's Day holiday observed by the Supreme Court for many years. Irish lawyers in general, helped considerably in the establishment and extension of the traditional British Legal system, both in Melbourne and throughout Victoria.

Doyle, H, 'Allegations of Disloyalty at Koroit during World War I [Victoria]', In Bull,P, et al eds. Ireland and Australia, 1798-1998: Studies in Culture, Identity and Migration, (Sydney: Crossing Press, 1998), pp.165-176. Irish traditions are perpetuated in the district around Koroit, near Warrnambool, Victoria, and during World War I Irish sentiment characterised the politics of the area. Koroit, as elsewhere in Australia, was polarised over conscription between political beliefs, on the one hand, and religious and racial identity, on the other. This essay investigates stories, both told and untold, of incidents surrounding the recruitment drives and conscription debate in Koroit that highlight the sectarian fears and the antagonism between labour and conservative, between Catholic and Protestant, of country Victoria at the time. Oral accounts, newspaper reports and historical records of events at Koroit differ, reflecting different perspectives of the social and political background. The uncertainty of knowledge about Koroit's wartime experience contributes to its significance, suggesting that what the locals want to remember is not the divisions but rather the strength that Irish nationalism once had in the town.

Ford, PP, Cardinal Moran and the A.L.P.: A Study in the Encounter between Moran and Socialism, 1890-1907, its Effects upon the Australian Labor Party, the Foundation of Catholic Social Thought and Action in Modern Australia, ([Melbourne]: Melbourne University Press, 1966). [NMA 261.80994 FOR]

Forth, G, 'The Anglo-Irish in Early Australia: Old World Origins and Colonial Experiences', In Irish-Australian Studies: Papers Delivered at the Sixth Irish-Australian Conference, July 1990, Bull,P, C McConville and N McLachlaneds (Melbourne: La Trobe University, 1990), 51-62 .     This paper, which focuses mainly on the pre-gold rush period, is based on research into the old world background, motivation and colonial experiences of the Anglo-Irish in early Australia. Until recently individual Anglo-Irish have been regarded as English who just happen to be born in Ireland. Yet though the two nationalities had a great deal in common and actual differences are difficult to define, the Anglo-Irish bought with them to Australia their own distinctive attitudes and values. The Anglo-Irish were prominent in virtually every reform movement in pregold rush Australia. These included measures to protect Aborigines, abolish transportation and to introduce more representative, local forms of government. Most Anglo-Irish emigrants came to Australia as temporary exiles and eventually planned to return and resettle in Ireland.

From Tent to Parliament: The Life of Peter Lalor and His Coadjutors: History of the Eureka Stockade, (Ballarat [Vic.]: Berry, Anderson & Co., 1934) , 48 p. [NMA RARE 994.50924 FRO]

Galbaly, A, Redmond Barry: An Anglo-Irish Australian, (Carlton, Vic.: Melbourne University Press, 1995). [NMA 347.9450350924 GAL and EDWARDS 347.9450350924 GAL]

Harty, R, 'From Cork to Kempsey: An Irish Contribution to the Timing of Australian Federation', Australian Journal of Irish Studies v.4 2002, pp.117-126.      Thomas and Ellen Clarke arrived in Australia in 1836 while Thomas was serving in the British army. After Thomas' army discharge in 1840, the Clarkes settled into a farming life, becoming with their children considerable landowners in the Macleay River area near Kempsey, New South Wales (NSW). Although Irish Roman Catholic and devoutly religious, the Clarkes were not assertively Irish and appear to have been significantly anglicised through British army enculturation. Their youngest son, Francis, entered politics as a supporter of Federation, resigning his Hastings-Macleay seat in the Legislative Assembly to open the way for Edmund Barton to take the seat and lead the Federation movement in parliament. It is suggested that the work of people like Francis Clarke demonstrates that it was not the English who transformed Irish Australia after the 1840s, but waves of Irish immigrants equipped with English language, education and views of the primacy of politics.

Jupp, J, 'Ethnicity, Race and Sectarianism', In Simms,M ed. 1901 : The Forgotten Election, (St Lucia [Brisbane], Qld: University of Queensland Press in association with the API Network and Curtin University of Technology, 2001), pp.135-148, 270.      This paper examines the social and political context of the 1901 Australian election, particularly in relation to ethnicity, race, and sectarianism. It is argued that the first Australian Federal election was not the start of a new era, but the continuation of the old. Imperial loyalty remained a powerful sentiment in all political parties, and remained so until the end of World War I. White Australia was also firmly entrenched by the election. The 1901 Parliament pledged to create a 'nation for a continent and a continent for a nation' bound together by a 'crimson thread of kinship'. It proceeded to do so for those of British Protestant descent and, grudgingly, for Irish Catholics and Nordic Protestants. However, it took no heed of the Indigenous people and was dedicated to excluding other non-Europeans altogether. These preferences lingered for over sixty years, and are still evident in some quarters today.

MacDonagh, O, The Sharing of the Green: A Modern Irish History for Australians, (St. Leonards, NSW: Allen and Unwin, 1996) .      This book is designed for those Australians of Irish descent who would like to learn more of the history of their homeland. This modern history focuses on the period of Irish history when emigration was at its peak - 1790 to 1945. There is a special emphasis on religion, land protest, attitudes to authority, respectability, the imperial connection, and especially, politics. Over eight million Irish emigrated between 1788 and 1914. Only 500,000 of these settled in Australia. However, their influence extended far beyond their actual numbers. They were a founding people for Australia. The background to this group will help Australians to understand how their country developed historically.

Macintyre, C, 'The Adelaide Irish and the Politics of St Patrick's Day 1900-1918', In Irish-Australian Studies: Papers Delivered at the Seventh Irish-Australian Conference, July 1993, Pelan,R ed. Brisbane (Sydney: Crossing Press, 1994), 182-196.   St Patrick's Day in Adelaide, prior to World War 1, provided celebrations that were little more than a regular march and a programme of sports and speeches. There was little that was obviously Irish about the festivities. The South Australian Irish took care not to alienate their host community by the promotion of overt ethnic division. Yet, by 1918, a more pronounced political identification with the Irish Nationalists had emerged and participants were invited to show their 'Sinn Fein spirit' and to make the day an 'Irish festival'. This article traces the history of this change, making a connection between the burgeoning political demands of the Home Rulers and the growing influence and importance of the emergent nationalist cultural expressions of the Irish. The nature of the conflict between the Irish and the British changed during the First World War, so the cultural and political dimensions of St Patrick's Day marches and the political concerns of the Irish in South Australia changed. It was the Easter Week uprising and its aftermath that acted to change the way Irish-Australians saw themselves and their relationship with the rest of the broader Australian community. The fear of alienating the broader community had disappeared. (Author abstract)

McCorkell, DE, 'Brother Ronald Fogarty's Catholic Education in Australia, 1806-1950, Volumes I and II: A Reappraisal', (unpublished Master of Education thesis, University of Melbourne, 1990), 96 leaves.

O'Farrell, P, 'The Irish Republican Brotherhood in Australia: The 1918 Internments', In MacDonagh,O, WF Mandle and P Travers eds. Irish Culture and Nationalism, 1750-1950, (London: Macmillan/Humanities Research Centre, ANU, 1950), pp.182-193.      On 17 June 1918, seven members of the Irish National Association (INA) were arrested and detained on the grounds that they sought Irish independence of Britain. This book examines why this was a matter of concern to the Australian government. The apparent link was Irish neutrality; support of Irish independence was equated with British disloyalty and even pro- Germanism. Rather than increase patriotic fervour, detentions led to support for the detainees among the Catholic community. The judicial report of Mr Justice Harvey sought to reduce social tensions. In this, the case was assisted by the defence by Albert Dryer, one of the detainees and Secretary of the INA, in which he minimised the conspiracy allegations.

O'Farrell, P, 'Irish Australia at an End: The Australian League for an Undivided Ireland 1948-54', Tasmanian Historical Research Association Papers and Proceedings v.21 (4), December 1974, pp.142-160.      This article traces the campaign in Australia against the partition of Ireland. It began with a 6 week speaking tour by Edmon de Valera, which received a hostile reception from the Australian press as well as from some people of Irish descent who did not want Irish problems imported into Australia. The Irish National Association sought to develop a program for opposition to partition, but was hampered by disagreement between the Sydney and Melbourne branches; and by the fact that moral support was more difficult to organise than fund raising. Support rapidly dwindled in 1954 when the IRA began a campaign of violence.

O'Farrell, P, 'Dreaming of Distant Revolution: A. T. Dryer and the Irish National Association, Sydney, 1915-1916', Journal of the Royal Australian Historical Society v.69 (3), December 1983 1983, pp.145-160.

Partlon, A, 'Champion of the Goldfields: John Waters Kirwan [Influential Newspaper Editor and the First Federal Member for Kalgoorlie, Western Australia (WA)]', Studies in Western Australia History(20), 2000, pp.94-116. [NMA S 994.1 STU]      Born into a prosperous and political Irish family in Liverpool, England in 1869, John Waters Kirwan emigrated to Australia in 1889. In 1895 he became editor of the newly established 'Kalgoorlie Miner'. The newspaper prospered and exercised powerful political influence. Kirwan campaigned for miners and became involved in the alluvial rights dispute of 1898. Subsequently, Kirwan lost his bid for a Legislative Council seat and the paper successfully defended a libel suit. As 1900 approached, constitutional debate preoccupied the nation. 'Separation for Federation' was the cry of the 'Miner' for the goldfields to join the Federation as an independent State if 'Westralia' would not. After the overwhelming vote for Federation, Kirwan became the first Federal member for Kalgoorlie, Western Australia (WA) then an Independent in the Legislative Council for 38 years. Since his death in 1949, historians have unsuccessfully attempted to diminish his pivotal role in the WA Federal movement.

Ronayne, J, First Fleet to Federation: Irish Supremacy in Colonial Australia, (Dublin: Trinity College Dublin Press, 2002).

Rushton, PJ, 'Community Anxiety: An Aspect of the Conscription Campaigns', Tasmanian Historical Research Association Papers and Proceedings v.19 (2), June 1972, pp.49-60.

Rutherford, J, 'The Irish Conceit: Ireland and the New Australian Nationalism', In Bull,P, F Devlin-Glass and H Doyle eds. Ireland and Australia, 1798-1998: Studies in Culture, Identity and Migration, (Sydney: Crossing Press, 2000), pp.196-207.      For over two decades the Australian nationalist tradition with its images of an honest, white, innocent Australia has been called into disrepute by the voices of multiculturalism, Indigenous Australia, cultural history, and feminism. This essay identifies the emergence of a new nationalism that seeks to reforge the nationalist tradition, to redeem Australian nationalism from its colonial taint. A mythical history of Ireland is deployed in new narratives of nation such as those expressed in One Nation Party discourse, which revives the 'fighting Irish' stereotype, and in novels such as Tim Winton's 1994 'The Riders'. These narratives seek to portray Irish Australians as victims of colonisation by drawing analogies between Aboriginal dispossession and Irish dispossession by the British. The article aims to close the comfortable but imaginary gap between One Nation and the rest of Australians, to probe the pervasiveness of Australian nationalism and its enjoyment by a far larger community.

Whitaker, A, 'Irish Republican Support Activities in Sydney, 1969-1994', Australian Journal of Irish Studies v.3 2003, pp.79-90.      Irish Republican activism in Australia dates from the transportation of Irish rebels after the 1798 rebellion, and includes the activities of the Young Irelanders of 1848 and the Fenians of the 1860s. The most recent phase of the struggle for a united Ireland commenced with the arrival of British troops in the north of Ireland in 1969. From 1969 to 1994, Irish Australian organisations including the Irish National Association (INA), Sean South-Fearbal O'Hanlon Society, Irish Civilian Relief Association (ICRA) and Australian Irish Congress (AIC) organised protests and rallies, held fund-raising events, brought Irish Republican speakers to Australia, and supported a hunger strike campaign. Although Australian Irish Republican support was not as important financially as that of the United States (US), Irish Republican activism in Australia from 1969 to 1994 was more widespread and prolonged than has been credited, and important in promoting international solidarity among the Irish diaspora.

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Queensland

Byrne, NJ, 'Writing Robert Dunne: Brisbane's First Catholic Archbishop', In Irish-Australian Studies: Papers Delivered at the Seventh Irish-Australian Conference, July 1993, Pelan,Red. Brisbane (Sydney: Crossing Press, 1994), 197-205 pp.      The author has written a biography entitled Robert Dunne, 1830-1917: Archbishop of Brisbane. Dunne had been viewed by his peers as a man who was something of a disappointment, but when local studies of various aspects of the Queensland Catholic experience began to appear in the late 1960s and 70s, a different picture of Robert Dunne emerged. Dunne was a prolific writer and his personal papers comprised informed social commentary and personal and spiritual reflection. Byrne, in this article, describes the Robert Dunne that he discovered in the research for his book. Underlying all Dunne's official attitudes and actions was his own unhappy experience of family life as a boy and as a young priest in Ireland. This made him sensitive to the challenges facing all families. In Australia, he searched for a new sense of belonging. When he became Archbishop of Brisbane, he promoted social policies which would improve Catholic social progress, teaching his people the values of sobriety, thrift, and tolerance. Prison chaplaincy was also a high priority, as was the development of Catholic education.

Connors, L, 'The Politics of Ethnicity: Irish Orphan Girls at Moreton Bay', In Australian Studies: Papers Delivered at the Seventh Irish-Australian Conference, July 1993, Pelan,R ed. Brisbane (Sydney: Crossing Press, 1994), 167-181.      The Irish Migration Scheme resulted in over 4000 young women arriving in the Australian colonies between October 1848 and August 1850, the latter years of the Great Famine. This paper focuses on those Irish young women who were forwarded by the Sydney migration officials to what was then, the most northerly districts of New South Wales. The reception of these young women at Moreton Bay reveals some important insights into the nature of ethnic politics and the significance of those politics at the personal level. This paper draws together two approaches, that of the influence of sectarian politics and of social history, to show the way in which these young women successfully contested and negotiated the hostile environment in which they found themselves. Drawing on the operation of the law, and the appearance of some of these young women in the courtrooms in Brisbane, Connors provides some insights into the politics and experiences of these women in defending their rights and status. (Author abstract)

Fisher, Rod and Barry Shaw eds. Brisbane: The Ethnic Presence since the 1850s, (Kelvin Grove, Qld: Brisbane History Group, 1993).      This volume comprises eleven papers on the history of ethnicity and multiculturalism in the Brisbane region since the 1850s. It concentrates on the colonial period from separation to federation and the twentieth century through the two world wars until modern day. The papers provide overviews of several ethnic groups during these periods, especially the Welsh, Irish, Italians and Germans and highlights various themes including: motivation, attraction, migration and distribution; government policy and the demographic profile over time; economic and occupational impact, including mining, farming and building; social and cultural features, including associations, churches, cuisine; preservation and adaptation of traditional culture; reciprocal attitudes and relations within the Anglo-Celtic society; integration, assimilation, division and discrimination; impact of war on ethnic communities; and life histories, personal experiences and individual achievements.

Harrison, J, 'Governors, Gaolers and Guards: Irish Soldiers at Moreton Bay, 1824-42', In Irish-Australian Studies: Papers Delivered at the Seventh Irish-Australian Conference, July 1993, Pelan,R ed. Brisbane (Sydney: Crossing Press, 1994), 300-310.      This paper looks at the Irish members of the six British foot regiments which administered the Moreton Bay penal settlement between 1824 and 1842. These regiments were the 4th, the 17th, the 28th, the 40th, the 57th and the 80th. By analysing the backgrounds of the Irish members of the foot regiments, Harrison provides case studies which reveal several similarities between the soldiers who had the responsibility of guarding convicts and the convicts themselves. Examples are: the Irish soldiers came from precisely the same townlands and parishes in Ireland as the convicts; both groups were serving in institutions, strictly bound by rules and regulations administered by the British government; and both had come to Australia under orders. Harrison cites many other similarities, and considers the implications of such similarities when assessing the relationship between the two groups. It would not have been unusual for some of them to have known each other in Ireland, and to continue their friendship at Moreton Bay. Because there were only two classes of people at Moreton Bay, Harrison suggests that some of the goodwill which existed there, could be attributed to the similarities between some of the governors, gaolers and guards and their prisoners due to shared Irish origins.

Harrison, J, 'The Fourth R: Reading, Writing, 'Rithmetic and Religion. Irish Teachers in Queensland Schools in the 1860s', The Australian Journal of Irish Studies v.2 2002, pp.95-108.      The colony of Queensland inherited much of the 1830s New South Wales (NSW) educational system when it separated from NSW in 1859. The NSW system was an adaptation of the Irish National System that catered for both Protestants and Catholics on the basis of a 'common Christianity'. Although there was general agreement in Queensland that education should include religious teaching, no group permitted any one rite to dominate. The role of schools in the promotion of religion divided the community in the years leading up to the Education Act in 1875, and indeed until support for denominational schools was withdrawn in 1880. The numerous Irish teachers in Queensland in the 1860s generally abided by the educational guidelines under the close scrutiny of head teachers, inspectors, the Board of General Education and the public, and provided an unbiased basic education in the four Rs.

Moloney, LW, 'Irish in Queensland', In Brandle,M and S Karas eds. Multicultural Queensland: The People and Communities of Queensland: A Bicentennial Publication, (Brisbane: Ethnic Communities Council of Queensland and the Queensland Migrant Welcome Association, 1988).      John Finnegan was the first Irishman to come to Queensland. His arrival, on a ticket of leave, predates that of John Oxley (1823), whom he guided to Moreton Bay. Irish born Bishop Quinn became the first Catholic Bishop of Brisbane in 1861. He set up the Queensland Immigration Society which brought 3900 Irish immigrants to Queensland in the next two years. By 1901, 30 per cent of the population was Irish. By 1933, the proportion had been reduced to 2 per cent. The Irish have been prominent in Queensland politics, commerce, development and transport.
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Moloney, L, 'The Queensland Irish Volunteers 1887-1898', Journal of the Royal Historical Society of Queensland v.16 (1), Feb 1996 1996, pp.14-20.      At the beginning of the 1890s, the Queensland Irish Volunteers had seven companies, a battalion staff, and a band. By the beginning of 1898, they had all voluntarily resigned. This article gives some insights into why they disbanded. There were three main reasons for the end of the Volunteers. The first was economic. The recessionary climate led to severe funding cuts in Australia's volunteer forces. The second reason was the use of volunteers to put down civil disturbances like the shearers' strike in 1891. The third and most important reason was the antagonism of Imperial officers in the force to volunteers at all levels.

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Religion and Education

Ayres, P, Prince of the Church: Patrick Francis Moran, 1830-1911, (Carlton, Vic.: Meigunyah Press (Imprint of Melbourne University Press), 2007). [NMA 282.092 AYR]

Bourke, DF, The History of the Vincentian Fathers in Australasia, ([Melbourne]: Congregation of the Mission, 1981). [NMA 271.770994 BOU]

Braniff, J, And Gladly Teach: The Marist Experience in Australia 1872-2000, (Melbourne: David Lovell Publishing, 2006) . [NMA 271.790994 BRA]

Byrne, NJ, 'Writing Robert Dunne: Brisbane's First Catholic Archbishop', In Irish-Australian Studies: Papers Delivered at the Seventh Irish-Australian Conference, July 1993, Pelan,R ed. Brisbane (Sydney: Crossing Press, 1994), 197-205.   The author has written a biography entitled Robert Dunne, 1830-1917: Archbishop of Brisbane. Dunne had been viewed by his peers as a man who was something of a disappointment, but when local studies of various aspects of the Queensland Catholic experience began to appear in the late 1960s and 70s, a different picture of Robert Dunne emerged. Dunne was a prolific writer and his personal papers comprised informed social commentary and personal and spiritual reflection. Byrne, in this article, describes the Robert Dunne that he discovered in the research for his book. Underlying all Dunne's official attitudes and actions was his own unhappy experience of family life as a boy and as a young priest in Ireland. This made him sensitive to the challenges facing all families. In Australia, he searched for a new sense of belonging. When he became Archbishop of Brisbane, he promoted social policies which would improve Catholic social progress, teaching his people the values of sobriety, thrift, and tolerance. Prison chaplaincy was also a high priority, as was the development of Catholic education.

Calderwood, G, 'A Question of Loyalty: Archbishop Daniel Mannix, the Australian Government and the Papacy, 1914-18', Australian Studies (London, England) v.17 (2), Winter 2002, pp.55-94.

Campion, E, 'Irish and Catholic and Australian', The Sydney Papers v.7 (2), Autumn 1995, pp.76-83.      This article looks at what it meant to be Australian, for the Irish, from the time of federation through to the Second World War. It discusses the difficulty for Irish Catholics in feeling a belonging to the British Empire rather than to their new homeland Australia. Historically, the Australian national identity was not a separate entity but subsumed by a British identity. The author discusses the difficulty for the Australian Irish Catholics, particularly in relation to the conscription campaigns of 1916 and 1917, where there was division in Australia along Irish Catholic and British Protestant lines. The article concludes that over time, the Irish Catholics softened and became more comfortable about being part of the Empire.

Coldrey, B, 'A most Unenviable Reputation: The Christian Brothers and School Discipline Over Two Centuries', In Irish-Australian Studies: Papers Delivered at the Seventh Irish-Australian Conference, July 1993, Pelan,R ed. Brisbane (Sydney: Crossing Press, 1994), 252-268      Novels, memoirs, autobiographies or oral reflections which make reference to the Christian Brothers, mention the issue of the Brothers' discipline in the classroom. Coldrey recognises that most Christian Brothers used corporal punishment in their classrooms over the last 200 years, but he queries whether they were unique in this regard. This paper examines the issue to see where the truth lies in the images that surround the Brothers. It looks at the changes in rules and regulations governing discipline in Christian Brothers' schools over the last 200 years, the broader context of educating working-class children, and the pressures faced by Christian Brothers in classroom management and in encouraging, often by the use of severe discipline, academic achievement and upward social mobility of their students.

Davis, RP, 'Patrick O'Farrell and Irish Secular Nationalism', Tasmanian Historical Research Association Papers and Proceedings v.20 (4), December 1973.

Donohoe, JH, The Catholics of New South Wales, 1788-1820 and their Families, (Sydney: Archives Authority of New South Wales, 1988).

Fogarty, R, Catholic Education in Australia 1806-1950, (Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 1959). [NMA 371.070994 FOG]

Ford, PP, Cardinal Moran and the A.L.P.: A Study in the Encounter between Moran and Socialism, 1890-1907, its Effects upon the Australian Labor Party, the Foundation of Catholic Social Thought and Action in Modern Australia, ([Melbourne]: Melbourne University Press, 1966). [NMA 261.80994 FOR]

Harrison, J, 'The Fourth R: Reading, Writing, 'Rithmetic and Religion. Irish Teachers in Queensland Schools in the 1860s', The Australian Journal of Irish Studies v.2 2002, pp.95-108.      The colony of Queensland inherited much of the 1830s New South Wales (NSW) educational system when it separated from NSW in 1859. The NSW system was an adaptation of the Irish National System that catered for both Protestants and Catholics on the basis of a 'common Christianity'. Although there was general agreement in Queensland that education should include religious teaching, no group permitted any one rite to dominate. The role of schools in the promotion of religion divided the community in the years leading up to the Education Act in 1875, and indeed until support for denominational schools was withdrawn in 1880. The numerous Irish teachers in Queensland in the 1860s generally abided by the educational guidelines under the close scrutiny of head teachers, inspectors, the Board of General Education and the public, and provided an unbiased basic education in the four Rs.

Hogan, M, The Sectarian Strand: Religion in Australian History, (Ringwood, Vic.: Penguin Books, 1987). [NMA 279.408 HOG]

Jacobs, P, 'Free Women on a Savage Frontier: St John of God Sisters on the Kimberley Pearling Coast of Western Australia', Australian Journal of Irish Studies v.4 2002, pp.259-267.      Nine Irish nuns of the order of Sisters of St John of God arrived in the Beagle Bay mission in the Kimberley region of Western Australia (WA) in 1907. The Aboriginal mission was the sole European outpost on the Dampier Peninsula. As conditions on the mission became unviable, two of the group left to establish a separate foundation in Broome, WA, where they could secure an income and independence by providing nursing and schooling services, and minister to ill-treated women and children in the town. This article examines how the nuns overcame harsh conditions, illness and exile to stay in the Kimberley and work for the benefit of Aboriginal, Asian and mixed-race people in the heyday of the pearling industry, establishing close relationships with the Japanese, Filipino and Chinese communities in Broome and ignoring widespread prejudicial attitudes to form an enduring solidarity with the Indigenous Dampierland people.

Keely, V, Dixon of Botany Bay: The Convict Priest from Wexford, (Strathfield, N.S.W.: St Pauls Publications, 2003. [NMA 282.415092 KEE]      The remarkable story of James Dixon an Irish priest wrongly accused and convicted of taking part in the Irish Rebellion of 1798 and transported to Australia

Kildea, J, Tearing the Fabric: Sectarianism in Australia, 1910 to 1925, (Sydney: Citadel Books, 2002). [NMA 282.94 KIL]

Loyal Orange Institution of Queensland, Laws and Ordinances of the Loyal Orange Institution of Queensland, Incorporated by Letters Patent, Passed as Revised by the Grand Lodge of Queensland, 1927 to 1932, (Brisbane: Printed for the Grand Lodge of Queensland by K.A. Baltzer, 1927). [NMA RARE 369.2943 LOY]

Lucas, B, 'Reflections on Multi-Faith: A Catholic Perspective', Australian Mosaic (2), Autumn 2003, pp.16.      Australia is a tolerant society, but from time to time there have been instances of unjust discrimination based on religion. Often, this was confused by links with ethnicity, for example discrimination against the Irish in the early 20th century. Attitudes have changed significantly and are enshrined in racial discrimination legislation. Religious prejudice still exists, and some religions are more vulnerable to attack than others. The solution is to be found in education and dialogue. In a recent initiative a Catholic school and a public school in a predominantly Muslim area of Sydney, New South Wales (NSW), brought their students together to share experiences. More activities of this nature, at all levels, will help establish interfaith dialogue and understanding.

MacDonagh, O, The Sharing of the Green: A Modern Irish History for Australians, (St. Leonards, NSW: Allen and Unwin, 1996).       This book is designed for those Australians of Irish descent who would like to learn more of the history of their homeland. This modern history focuses on the period of Irish history when emigration was at its peak - 1790 to 1945. There is a special emphasis on religion, land protest, attitudes to authority, respectability, the imperial connection, and especially, politics. Over eight million Irish emigrated between 1788 and 1914. Only 500,000 of these settled in Australia. However, their influence extended far beyond their actual numbers. They were a founding people for Australia. The background to this group will help Australians to understand how their country developed historically.

McCorkell, DE, 'Brother Ronald Fogarty's Catholic Education in Australia, 1806-1950, Volumes I and II: A Reappraisal', (unpublished Master of Education thesis, University of Melbourne, 1990).

Murray, R, 'Proddies and Micks [Sectarian Divide between Protestants and Catholics in Australia]', Quadrant v.49 (415), n4, Apr 2005, pp.30-37. [NMA S 052 QUA]      The proportion of Australians identifying as Catholic has fluctuated around 25 per cent since 1788, down to 20 per cent in the 1930s and back to 27 per cent at present, with most of the rest identifying as Protestant. The 16th century Reformation and Counter-Reformation and subsequent political dramas seeped into the semi-consciousness of the English-speaking world. An understanding of the underlying issues descended into mutual stereotyping by Catholics and Protestants in Australia until the 1960s ecumenical movement, when churches began to emphasise their commonalities rather than their differences. This article analyses the 'sectarian problem', drawing on personal memory, others' memories or research and relevant documentation. A deep communal divide was evident in issues such as education and marriage, discrimination in employment and promotion, and the influence of Freemasonry. Irish questions, immigration, politics and social class exacerbated the divide, but Australianisation and assimilation proceeded and largely overwhelmed sectarianism.

Murtagh, JG, Australia, the Catholic Chapter, (Sydney: Angus and Robertson, 1959).

Nicholls, P, 'Turn-of-the-Century Protestant Militancy and Anglicanism : The Case of Christ Church, Brunswick', In Warne,E and R Zika eds. God, the Devil and a Millennium of Christian Culture, (Melbourne: History Department, University of Melbourne, 2005), pp.135-167.

O'Brien, JB, 'The Australianisation of the Australian Catholic Church: Panico - Culprit Or Victim? [Archbishop Panico]', In Ireland and Australia, 1798-1998: Studies in Culture, Identity and Migration, Bull,P, F Devlin-Glass and H Doyleeds (Sydney: Crossing Press, 2000), 177-185.      Italian Archbishop Panico, Apostolic Delegate to Australia from 1935, was a controversial and contentious personality. Panico incurred the criticism of the Irish Government and clergy as well as that of the Minister of Immigration, Arthur Calwell, over his promotion of Australian trained priests over Irish ones as part of Vatican policy to Australianise the Catholic Church. This essay aims to determine whether Panico created or merely catalysed division in the Australian Catholic Church between Irish and Australian born clergy. It is concluded that it was Panico's abrasive attitude and bias in his methods more than his agenda of Australian appointments that aroused hostility. This allowed critics of the Australianisation policy to focus on personality defects in their opposition to him.

O'Farrell, P, Documents in Australian Catholic History, 1788-1883, (London: Chapman, 1969).

O'Farrell, P, The Catholic Church and Community in Australia : A History, New, revised and expanded edition, (Kensington, N.S.W.: University of New South Wales Press, 1977). [NMA 282.94 OFA]

O'Farrell, P, 'Catholic Church', Australian Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition, (Terrey Hills : N.S.W.: Australian Geographic, 1996), pp.688-691.

Paganoni, A, 'Taking the Pulse of the Australian Catholic Church in the 1940s and 1950s', Studi Emigrazione (Migration Studies) [Essays on Italian Migration After World War II] v.41 (155), Sep 2004, pp.619-632.      This article attempts to delineate the contours of the Catholic Church in Australia in the 1940s and 1950s. During that period 300,000 Italian migrants found their way to Australia, although some eventually returned to Italy. They were all Catholics, but their particular brand of Catholic traditions and customs came face to face with an Irish-dominated and fairly well-entrenched Catholicism. The article dwells only on the pulse of the Catholic Church at the time and does not take into consideration the various stages of mutual adjustment between the Italian migrants and the existing organisational and administrative aspects of the Catholic Church. It analyses the level of national cohesion and homogeneity of the Catholic Church in the vast Australian continent as well as some of its national attributes and essential features. Both Irish and Italian Catholics professed the same adherence to the Catholic Church, but their cultural expressions differed considerably. (Edited author abstract)

Patrick, R and H Patrick, Exiles Undaunted: The Irish Rebels Kevin and Eva O'Doherty, (St Lucia, Qld: University of Queensland, 1989). [NMA 994.0049162 PAT]      Kevin (a brilliant doctor) and Eva (a popular poetess) O'Doherty left a stormy past of political dissent in Ireland in 1860 to immigrate to Australia. As a parliamentarian in 1867, Kevin introduced Queensland's first Health Act. Eva was the acclaimed Irish nationalist poet, 'Eva of the Nation'. Van Diemen's Land. He later became famous as a surgeon, parliamentarian and leader of the Catholic laity. A campaigner for Home Rule, he returned to Ireland in 1885 and witnessed the movement's defeat before returning to Australia.

Pawsey, MM and St. Patrick's College (Manly, N.S.W.). Catholic Theological Faculty, The Popish Plot: Culture Clashes in Victoria 1860-1863, (Manly, N.S.W.: Catholic Theological Faculty, St. Patrick's College, 1983).

Perkins, H, The Convict Priests, (Rosanna, Vic.: H. Perkins, 1984). [NMA 282.0922 PER]

Santamaria, BA, Daniel Manni , the Quality of Leadership, (Carlton, Vic.: Melbourne University Press, 1984). [NMA 228.092 SAN]

Simons, PF, Tenants no More, (Richmond, Vic.: Prowling Tiger Press, 1996).     Based on letters and diaries which were found in a backyard shed in suburban Melbourne over one hundred years after they were written, this book looks at community life in Ireland and the attempt to maintain that life in lands to which the Irish emigrated. The letter revealed that a Samuel Clay had written the diaries. Clay had come from Gurteen, a small community in southern Ireland, where many of the letters originated, and he built a Methodist meeting house in Gurteen. The most overriding impression is that of the durability, vigour and revolutionary power of the Methodist movement when it was transported to other lands by way of Irish immigration.

Southerwood, WT, Lonely Shepherd in Van Diemen's Isle: Father Philip Conolly, Australia's First Vicar-General, (George Town, Tas.: Stella Maris Books, 1988). [NMA 282.0924 SOU]

Suttor, TL, Hierarchy and Democracy in Australia, 1788-1870: The Formation of Australian Catholicism, (Carlton, Vic.: Melbourne University Press, 1965). [NMA 282.94 SUT]

Tolcvay, M, 'Community and Church: The Catholic Church and 'the Problem' of Italian Immigrants in the United States and in Australia, with Special Reference to South Australia', Spunti e Ricerche [Supplement: Italian Figures in Australian Landscapes] v.17 2002, pp.50-70.      Mass migration of Italians to both the United States (US) and Australia gave rise to what became known as 'the Italian problem'. When Italian migrants arrived in the new country they carried with them their own set of religious beliefs and customs that differed noticeably from those of the Irish dominated Catholic Church. This article compares how 'the Italian problem' was handled in the US, Australia in general, and South Australia (SA) in particular. The article first investigates 'the problem' in the US in the late 1800s and early 1900s when mass migration was at its peak, and examines how the American Catholic Church tried to overcome 'the problem' The article then examines the corresponding circumstances in Australia, which began in the early 1920s. Finally, the article examines 'the problem' at a local level, through the eyes of Father Paul Zolin, the first permanent Italian priest in SA. (Edited author abstract)

Waldersee, J, Catholic Society in New South Wales, 1788-1860, (Sydney: University of Sydney Press, 1974. [NMA 282.944 WAL]

Waugh, M, 'The National System of Education in Victoria, 1849-1862 : Sir Richard Bourke and the Irish Connection', In Bull,P, F Devlin-Glass and H Doyle eds. Ireland and Australia, 1798-1998: Studies in Culture, Identity and Migration, (Sydney: Crossing Press, 2000), pp.102-112.      A system of state aided National Schools for the poor was established in Ireland in 1831 with the aim of promoting religious harmony through 'mixed' education. Although most of the Irish National Schools became church schools by 1860, the original ideal survived in the Irish model of education that evolved in New South Wales, Victoria and Queensland. This article recounts the crucial role played in the push for National Education by Sir Richard Bourke, Governor of the colony of New South Wales from 1831. As a result of Bourke's work, the concept of National Education was carried through the education system of the new colony of Victoria which was created in 1851. The early introduction of Victoria's 'Free, Compulsory and Secular' Act of 1872 and its flow on to other States owes much to the experience of the National System, the forerunner of State education in Australia.

Williams, C, 'Moran, Mannix and St Patrick's Day [Cardinal Patrick Moran and Cardinal Daniel Mannix]', In Bull,P, F Devlin-Glass and H Doyle eds. Ireland and Australia, 1798-1998: Studies in Culture, Identity and Migration, (Sydney: Crossing Press, 2000), pp.143-151.      From the end of the nineteenth century the Catholic Church sought to transform the 'Irish National Celebration' on St Patrick's Day into a demonstration of the strength and unity of the Catholic body in Australia. Cardinal Moran of Sydney and Cardinal Mannix of Melbourne recognised the significance of the celebrations in fostering a collective identity and memory among Irish Catholics. This essay explores the relationship between the church and St Patrick's Day in Melbourne and Sydney in the early decades of the twentieth century, the impact that the onset of clerical control had, and how this differed between the two cities. Although some scholars have argued that clerical control of St Patrick's Day eroded authentic Irishness from the celebrations, the church's role in sustaining ties between Ireland and Irish Australians should be acknowledged, and Irishness and Catholicism seen not as opposing but interdependent, complementary elements of Irish Catholic identity in Australia.

Woolmington, Jean ed. Religion in Early Australia: The Problem of Church and State,( Stanmore, N.S.W.: Cassell Australia, 1976). [NMA 279.4 REL]

Return to Contents

Resistance to Authorityy

Adam-Smith, P, Heart of Exile: Ireland, 1848, and the Seven Patriots Banished ... (Melbourne: Nelson, 1986). [NMA 941.5081 ADA]

Amos, K, The Fenians in Australia 1865-1880, (Kensington, N.S.W.: New South Wales University Press, 1988). [NMA 994.0049162 AMO]

Blee, J, Eureka, (Wollombi, N.S.W.: Exisle Publishing, 2007). [NMA 994.57031 BLE]

Bolton, G, 'The Fenians are Coming, the Fenians are Coming', Studies in Western Australian History (4), Dec 1981, pp.62-67.

Christie, EM, The Fenian Prisoners in Western Australia: Extracts Relating to their Escape by the American Barque 'Catalpa', 1876, (1955).

Cowburn, P, 'The Attempted Assassination of the Duke of Edinburgh, 1868', Royal Australian Historical Society Journal v.55 (1), 1969, pp.19-42. [NMA S 994 JOU*]

Currey, CH, The Irish at Eureka, (Sydney: Angus and Robertson, 1954). [NMA RARE 994.57031 CUR* and EDWARDS 994.57031 CUR]

Davis, R, 'Unpublicised Young Ireland Prisoners in Van Diemen's Land', Papers and Proceedings (Tasmanian Historical Research Association) v.38 (3-4), Dec 1991, pp.131-137.

Davis, RP, Revolutionary Imperialist: William Smith O'Brien 1803-1864, (Darlinghurst, N.S.W: Crossing Press, 1998) [NMA 941.5081 DAV]

Devoy, J, P Fennell and M King, John Devoy's Catalpa Expedition, (New York: New York University Press, 2006).       "The story of John Devoy's 1876 Catalpa rescue is a tale of heroism, creativity, and the triumph of independent spirit in pursuit of freedom. The daily log on board the whaling ship Catalpa begins with the typical recount of a crew intact and a spirit unfettered, but such quiet words deceive the truth of the audacious enterprise that came to be known as one of the most important rescues in Irish American history. John Devoy's men aided in the break-in and subsequent rescue of Irish political prisoners from the Australian coast, allowing millions of fellow Irishmen and American-Fenians, many of whom secretly financed the dangerous plot, to draw courage from the newly exiled prisoners."; "Philip Fennell and Marie King, both descendants of a pardoned Fenian prisoner, tell the story from John Devoy's own records and from the ship's logbooks. John Devoy's Catalpa Expedition includes an introduction by Terry Golway and the personal diaries, letters, and reports from John Devoy and his men."--BOOK JACKET.

Evans, Neil and others eds. Eureka Stockade: As Reported in the Pages of the Argus Newspaper, Second edition, (Melbourne, Vic.: Education Centre State Library of Victoria, 1998).[NMA 994.5031 EUR]

From Tent to Parliament: The Life of Peter Lalor and His Coadjutors: History of the Eureka Stockade, (Ballarat [Vic.]: Berry, Anderson & Co., 1934). [NMA RARE 994.50924 FRO]

Gapps, S, 'Performing the Unknown: The Re-Enactment of the 1804 Battle of Vinegar Hill. [the Combination of Live Performance and History can Work Wonders.]', History Australia v.1 (2), July 2004: 308-313. <http://search.informit.com.au/fullText;res=APAFT;dn=200406788>.

Glover, M, A MacLochlainn and Tasmanian Historical Association, Letters of an Irish Patriot: William Paul Dowling in Tasmania, (Sandy Bay, Tas.: Tasmanian Historical Research Association, 2005) . [NMA 994.6031 LET]

Graham, M and D Bamford, 'Chartists and Young Irelanders: Towards a Reassessment of Political Prisoners in Van Diemen's Land', Papers and Proceedings (Tasmanian Historical Research Association) v.32 (2), June 1985:.68-74.

Grassby, A, Six Australian Battlefields: The Black Resistance to Invasion and the White Struggle Against Colonial Oppression, (North Ryde, N.S.W.: Angus and Robertson, 1988). A history of events surrounding each battle is presented. Conflict between Aborigines and whites at the Hawkesbury River near Richmond Hill, Parramatta, Bathurst, Pinjarra and Battle Mountain are described. Two rebellions by whites at Vinegar Hill and Ballarat at the Eureka Stockade are also included. (LT). [NMA 994 GRA]     

Halls, C, 'The Great Escape: Fenians at Fremantle 1868-1876', Port of Fremantle v.7 (4), 1982, pp.14-18.

Heaney, S, 'How the Vinegar Hill Rebels Set the New Country on a Voyage of Self-Discovery: [the 1804 Rebellion at Vinegar Hill Helped Set a Political Agenda for the New Colony]', Irish Echo (Balmain, NSW) v.17 (6), 11-24 Mar 2004.

'Irish Exiles', Australian Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition, (Terrey Hills : N.S.W.: Australian Geographic, 1996), pp.1761-1862.

Keely, V, Dixon of Botany Bay: The Convict Priest from Wexford, (Strathfield, N.S.W.: St Pauls Publications, 2003).   The remarkable story of James Dixon an Irish priest wrongly accused and convicted of taking part in the Irish Rebellion of 1798 and transported to Australia [NMA 282.415092 KEE]

Kiely, B, The Waterford Rebels of 184 : The Last Young Irelanders and their Lives in America, Bermuda and Van Diemen's Land, (Dublin: Geography Publications, 1999). [NMA EDWARDS 941.91 KIE]

Kiernan, TJ, The Irish Exiles in Australia, (Melbourne: Burns & Oates, 1954).

MacDonagh, O, The Sharing of the Green: A Modern Irish History for Australians, (St. Leonards, NSW: Allen and Unwin, 1996).      This book is designed for those Australians of Irish descent who would like to learn more of the history of their homeland. This modern history focuses on the period of Irish history when emigration was at its peak - 1790 to 1945. There is a special emphasis on religion, land protest, attitudes to authority, respectability, the imperial connection, and especially, politics. Over eight million Irish emigrated between 1788 and 1914. Only 500,000 of these settled in Australia. However, their influence extended far beyond their actual numbers. They were a founding people for Australia. The background to this group will help Australians to understand how their country developed historically.

MacDonald, DI, 'Henry James O’Farrell: Fenian Or Moonstruck Miscreant?', Canberra and District Historical Society Journal(3), Sep 1970, pp.1-13.       The assassination attempt on the Duke of Edinburgh in 1868 may be of little importance in the history of the colony of New South Wales. Yet it is indicative of the sectarian bitterness which marred relations between Catholic and Protestant in those years. It illustrates, too, how the accused was found guilty by the press, by responsible citizens and the public before charges had been laid. [NMA S 994.7 JOU]

MacFarlane, Ian and Victoria.Department of Arts, Sport and Tourism. Public Record Office eds. Eureka: From the Official Records, (Melbourne: Public Record Office, Arts Victoria, 1995). [NMA 994.5031 EUR]

Molloy, F, ''Affection's Broken Chain’: The Irish and Colonial Poetry', The Australian Journal of Irish Studies v.2 2002, pp.122-134.      This article explores attitudes of nineteenth century Irish immigrants towards their homeland and towards their adopted land of Australia, as expressed in poetry of the time. An Irish presence in Australian poetry can be dated to the early 1800s. The early poetry reflected two alternative responses to migration, restless rebellion that cannot shake off the homeland, and enthusiastic assimilation. Indeed, these themes recur in poetry throughout the colonial period. From the 1820s, Irish bushranger ballads celebrated rebellion of the convict Irish, and adaptations of Gaelic poetry glorified a distant land that contrasted with antipodean isolation and joylessness. By the late nineteenth century, nostalgia was accompanied by awareness of a new identity, a dual loyalty that proclaimed Ireland as their home but Australia as their country. The transfer of identity from Ireland to Australia was not yet contemplated, but by the 1880s the Irish Australian psyche had moved firmly towards integration.

Molony, JN, Eureka, 2nd edition, (Carlton South, Vic.: Melbourne University Press, 2001).       Before dawn on 3 December 1854, colonial troopers at Ballarat attacked a group of gold miners who had thrown up a stockade in defiance and defence. Some diggers had guns, but many were unarmed; some twenty of them were killed, along with four troopers. In the decades that followed, the truth of what happened that morning became obscured by partisans on both sides. For many years the Eureka Stockade was regarded as a shameful event and almost forgotten; more recently, it has been celebrated as a righteous stand against injustice. John Molony's Eureka vividly recreates the story of Eureka and unravels the myths that have come to surround it. The story of Australia's first and only armed rebellion for democratic rights continues to provoke passionate controversy and debate. This new edition of Molony's classic work, now beautifully illustrated with historic Eureka images, will be welcomed by everyone with an interest in the history of Australian democracy. [NMA 994.57031 MOL]

Moore, A, 'Phil Cunningham: A Forgotten Irish-Australian Rebel [this is the Text of a Presentation Delivered at 'Remembering Vinegar Hill' Seminar, Blacktown City Council, 7 March 2004.]', Hummer (Sydney) v.4 (2), Winter 2004, pp.7-12. <http://search.informit.com.au/fullText;res=APAFT;dn=200409924>.

Murray, R, 'Sydney's Brush with Bonaparte', Quadrant (Sydney), v.48, no.1-2, Jan-Feb 2004: 34-41. <http://search.informit.com.au/fullText;res=APAFT;dn=200400670; http://www.quadrant.org.au/php/archive_details_list.php?article_id=584> [NMA S 052 QUA].

O Luing, S, Fremantle Mission, (Tralee, Ireland: Anvil Books, 1965).

O'Brien, B and others, Massacre at Eureka: The Untold Story, (Kew, Vic.: Australian Scholarly Publishing in association with Sovereign Hill and the Museum of Victoria, 1992). [NMA 994.57031 OBR]

O'Connor, L, ''the Hooligans' of Australia and Cathleen Ni Houlihan : '98 Insurgency, Song, and Clan Remembrance', In Bull,P, F Devlin-Glass and H Doyle eds. Ireland and Australia, 1798-1998: Studies in Culture, Identity and Migration, (Sydney: Crossing Press, 2000), pp.71-79.      The Irish race, though scattered, is held together by song. This essay explores the role of song in shaping an oppositional political will and common memory among the diasporate Irish, focusing on the tension between spontaneity and political consciousness in political balladry. Around the close of the nineteenth century, the play 'Cathleen Ni Houlihan', by W.B. Yeats and Lady Gregory, was released coincidentally with the circulation of the neologism 'hooligan', apparently derived from an Irish Australian song 'The Hooligans'. Both names are from the Gaelic clan name O'hUallachain. The author explores three themes, the relationship between the anglicisation of Ireland and the stereotyping of the Irish as violent atavists, the ambiguously amnesiac and mobilising impact of political balladry, and selective remembrance in commemorative discourse, through a comparison between the rallying force of the song and the play and the O'hUallachain clan war cry.

O'Donnell, R, 'Michael Dwyer: Wicklow Chief and Irish-Australian Hero', In Irish-Australian Studies: Papers Delivered at the Seventh Irish-Australian Conference, July 1993, Pelan,R ed. Brisbane (Sydney: Crossing Press, 1994), 206-217 pp.      Michael Dwyer has the status of Australia's premier Irish hero figure. The most dramatic representation of this status within Australia is his tomb, Waverley Cemetery's Patriot's Monument which commemorates heroes of the 1798 Rebellion. This biographical article traces his involvement with the United Irishmen and the events of the Rebellion. Many accounts have been written of Michael Dwyer, and his literary potential as a figure of romance and adventure attracted much interest from poets, travel writers and novelists who used the material offered by his countless escapes and magnanimous acts which had made him a folk hero in Wicklow. In 1805, he was transported to New South Wales and in 1806, he became one of the leading members of the Irish community and associated with other successful compatriots. He remained in Australia until his death in 1898.

Pease, ZW, The Catalpa Expedition, (Carlisle, W.A.: Hesperian Press, 2002). [NMA 365.0994 PEA]

Petrow, S, 'Men of Honour?: The Escape of the Young Irelanders from Van Diemen's Land. [Paper in Special Issue: Escape: Essays on Convict Australia.]', Journal of Australian Colonial History v.7 (2005), 2005, pp.139-160. <http://search.informit.com.au/fullText;res=APAFT;dn=200607427>.

Rude, G, Protest and Punishment: The Story of the Social and Political Protesters Transported to Australia, 1788-1868, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1978). [NMA 365.34 RUD]

Russo, G, Race for the Catalpa: (the Fenian Escape Story), ([Perth]: Lynward Enterprises, 1986). [NMA 365.450994 RUS]

Silver, LR, The Battle of Vinegar Hill: Australia's Irish Rebellion 1804, (Sydney: Doubleday, 1989). [NMA 364.13109944 SIL]

Symes, JG, The Castle Hill Rebellion of 1804, Revised edition, ([Castle Hill]: Hills District Historical Society, 1990).

Tobin, GM, 'The sea-divided gael: A study of the Irish home rule movement in Victoria and New South Wales, 1880-1916', (Master of Arts, Australian National University, 1969).

Whitaker, A, 'Swords to Ploughshares? : The 1798 Irish Rebels in New South Wales', Labour History(75), Nov 1998, pp.9-21. <http://search.informit.com.au/fullText;res=APAFT;dn=200004706>.

Williams, P, Matthew Brady and Ned Kelly Kindred Spirits, Kindred Lives, (North Melbourne, Vic.: Arcadia, 2007). [NMA 364.1552 WIL]

Wooding, JM, 'The 'Language in which they Spoke in '98' : The Irish Language and the Centenary of 1798 in Ireland and Australia', In Bull,P, F Devlin-Glass and H Doyle eds. Ireland and Australia, 1798-1998: Studies in Culture, Identity and Migration, (Sydney: Crossing Press, 2000), pp.64-70.      One of the more compelling debates of the bicentenary of 1798 has been over the role of the Irish language in the 1798 rising. In Ireland in 1798 the Irish language was a basic means of communication for people of all faiths and classes, but was neither synonymous with separatism nor had achieved sufficient minority status to be useful as a vehicle for covert discourse. This essay explores the complexities of the role of Gaelic revival discourses in '98 centenary histories and monuments, with particular reference to the Australian '98 centenary celebration, and the degree to which the language was used as covert discourse or promoted as a symbol of nationalism. It is concluded that the Irish language should be made a part of the historiography of the 1898 centenary.

Woore, M, 'Neither Felons nor Free : Political Prisoners and Social Protestors [Series of Two Parts]: Part 2', Descent v.27 (3), Sept 1997 1997, pp.130-134. http://search.informit.com.au/fullText;res=APAFT;dn=980808272>.

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South Australia

Fitzpatrick, D, 'Exporting Brotherhood: Orangeism in South Australia', Immigration and Minorities v.23 (2-3), Jul-Nov 2005, pp.277-310.      The idea of fraternity and how to organise it was an invisible export from 19th century Europe to the 'New World'. This paper explores the international diffusion from Ireland of the Loyal Orange Institution, with comparative reference to its model of Freemasonry. Explanations proposed for its appeal outside Ireland are facilitating the assimilation of emigrants, transmitting 'tribal' Irish animosities to fresh contexts, or adapting itself to pre-existing sectarian rivalries and factional conflicts. These hypotheses are investigated and tested using evidence from South Australia (SA) where Orangeism was modestly successful, in the absence of Ulster immigration. A collective profile of the Loyal Orange Institution of South Australia (established in 1874) is derived from Lodge records showing age, religious denomination and occupation. The appeal of Orangeism is related to local religious and political contexts in SA, and it was primarily an export of organisational techniques rather than of Irish personnel or bigotry. (Edited author abstract)

Herraman, A, 'Irish Settlers Beyond the Tiers: Mount Barker, South Australia, 1836-1886', The Australian Journal of Irish Studies v.1 2001, pp.36-48.      Irish immigrants made little impact on the development of the Province of South Australia (SA) in its early years. However, by 1891 Roman Catholicism had become the dominant faith in four regions of the Colony, the Clare Valley, Gawler, northeastern Adelaide, and the Mount Barker region. This article traces the progress of Irish settlement in the Mount Barker region beyond the Mount Lofty Ranges, which were known as 'The Tiers'. Irish settlement was boosted by the Special Survey system established in 1839 and by the 'Irish South Australian Emigration Society'. Settler families established livelihoods in mining and agriculture, while large numbers of Irish immigrant women were employed in domestic and farm service. Supported by the clergy, Irish culture was institutionalised in the religious, educational and social life of Macclesfield. The impact of Irish settlement on SA is a tribute to the social investment of poor but generous spirited Irish settlers.

Jaunay, G, 'Bound for South Australia: A Study of the various Nineteenth Century Emigration Schemes and the Resultant Records', In Discoveries, Deadends and Databases: Proceedings of the 10th Australasian Congress on Genealogy and Heraldry (Melbourne Congress), Roy,J ed. Melbourne Convention Centre (Melbourne: Genealogical Society of Victoria, 2003)      A range of government and non-government fare assistance schemes operated in the 19th century to encourage British and European migrants from a wide range of backgrounds to settle in South Australia (SA). This article reviews the schemes and their associated records, highlights deficiencies in shipping and passenger records, and identifies alternative and complementary sources to fill information gaps. Government schemes including the Wakefield scheme and the South Australian Colonisation Commission scheme were based on landowners subsidising the passage of labourers. These schemes failed in practice but the principle of recruiting workers for wealthy landowners persisted throughout the period of colonial emigration into the 20th century. Non-government schemes helped German Lutherans, German miners, impoverished Scots and Irish famine orphans to settle in SA. Other information sources on assisted immigration include hospital records, newspapers and the Mary Hodge Index to arrivals. Current work to document every arrival in SA is also described.

Macintyre, C, 'The Adelaide Irish and the Politics of St Patrick's Day 1900-1918', In Irish-Australian Studies: Papers Delivered at the Seventh Irish-Australian Conference, July 1993, Pelan,R ed. (Sydney: Crossing Press, 1994), 182-196 pp.      St Patrick's Day in Adelaide, prior to World War 1, provided celebrations that were little more than a regular march and a programme of sports and speeches. There was little that was obviously Irish about the festivities. The South Australian Irish took care not to alienate their host community by the promotion of overt ethnic division. Yet, by 1918, a more pronounced political identification with the Irish Nationalists had emerged and participants were invited to show their 'Sinn Fein spirit' and to make the day an 'Irish festival'. This article traces the history of this change, making a connection between the burgeoning political demands of the Home Rulers and the growing influence and importance of the emergent nationalist cultural expressions of the Irish. The nature of the conflict between the Irish and the British changed during the First World War, so the cultural and political dimensions of St Patrick's Day marches and the political concerns of the Irish in South Australia changed. It was the Easter Week uprising and its aftermath that acted to change the way Irish-Australians saw themselves and their relationship with the rest of the broader Australian community. The fear of alienating the broader community had disappeared. (Author abstract)

Migration Museum [South Australia], From Many Place : The History and Cultural Traditions of South Australian People, (Kent Town, S.A.: Migration Museum (History Trust of South Australia) in association with Wakefield Press, 1995). [NMA 325.94 FRO]

Moore, P, 'Half-Burnt Turf: Selling Emigration from Ireland to South Australia, 1836-1845', In Irish-Australian Studies: Papers Delivered at the Sixth Irish-Australian Conference, July 1990, Bull,P, C McConville and N McLachlaneds (Melbourne: La Trobe University, 1990), 103-119.      Political economy was behind the unusually high profile of corporate sponsors of Irish investment capital into South Australian land, with associated emigration by labourers. Four distinct irons stoked the fire of Irish expatriation to South Australia between 1836 and the temporary end to assisted emigration in 1843. They were the South Australian Colonisation Commission, 1835-1842, the South Australian Protestant Emigration Community of 1837, the Irish South Australian Emigration Society of 1839 and its successors, and Colonel George Wyndham (1838-1840) and Sir Montague Lowther Chapman (1840-1853). Irish emigrants to South Australia comprised large numbers of skilled workers who were town dwellers with some capital. The injection of so many Irish imperial factors into South Australia's settlement rendered it for a time a 'New Anglo-Irish Province'.

O'Brien, J and P Travers, The Irish Emigrant Experience in Australia, (Swords, Ireland: Poolbeg, 1991). [NMA 994.0049162 IRI]

Tolcvay, M, 'Community and Church: The Catholic Church and 'the Problem' of Italian Immigrants in the United States and in Australia, with Special Reference to South Australia', Spunti e Ricerche [Supplement: Italian Figures in Australian Landscapes] v.17 2002, pp.50-70.      Mass migration of Italians to both the United States (US) and Australia gave rise to what became known as 'the Italian problem'. When Italian migrants arrived in the new country they carried with them their own set of religious beliefs and customs that differed noticeably from those of the Irish dominated Catholic Church. This article compares how 'the Italian problem' was handled in the US, Australia in general, and South Australia (SA) in particular. The article first investigates 'the problem' in the US in the late 1800s and early 1900s when mass migration was at its peak, and examines how the American Catholic Church tried to overcome 'the problem' The article then examines the corresponding circumstances in Australia, which began in the early 1920s. Finally, the article examines 'the problem' at a local level, through the eyes of Father Paul Zolin, the first permanent Italian priest in SA. (Edited author abstract)

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Tasmania

Collins, P, Hell's Gates: The Terrible Journey of Alexander Pearce, Van Dieman's Land Cannibal, (South Yarra, Vic.: Hardie Grant Books, 2002). [NMA 365.6092 COL]

Curr, E and TE Wells, An Account of the Colony of Van Diemen's Land ... for the use of Emigrants, (London: George Cowie, 1824).

Davis, R, 'Unpublicised Young Ireland Prisoners in Van Diemen's Land', Papers and Proceedings (Tasmanian Historical Research Association) v.38 (3-4), Dec 1991, pp.131-137.

Davis, RP, Revolutionary Imperialist: William Smith O'Brien 1803-1864, (Darlinghurst, N.S.W: Crossing Press, 1998). [NMA 941.5081 DAV]

Glover, M, A MacLochlainn and Tasmanian Historical Association, Letters of an Irish Patriot: William Paul Dowling in Tasmania, (Sandy Bay, Tas.: Tasmanian Historical Research Association, 2005). [NMA 994.6031 LET]

Graham, M and D Bamford, 'Chartists and Young Irelanders: Towards a Reassessment of Political Prisoners in Van Diemen's Land', Papers and Proceedings (Tasmanian Historical Research Association) v.32 (2), June 1985: 68-74.

Howard, P, To Hell Or to Hobart, (Kenthurst, NSW: Kangaroo Press, 1993). [NMA 941.5081 HOW]

Kiely, B, The Waterford Rebels of 1849: The Last Young Irelanders and their Lives in America, Bermuda and Van Diemen's Land, (Dublin: Geography Publications, 1999). [NMA EDWARDS 941.91 KIE]

Mitchel, J and P O'Shaughnessy, The Gardens of Hell: John Mitchel in Van Diemen's Land 1850-1853, (Kenthurst, N.S.W.: Kangaroo Press, 1988). [NMA 941.50810924 MIT]

Petrow, S, 'Island Prison: John Mitchel in Van Diemen's Land', Australian Journal of Irish Studies v.3 2003, pp.62-78.      John Mitchel was an Irish rebel who was transported to Van Diemen's Land (Tasmania) in 1849. This article analyses Mitchel's experiences as an Irish Exile and his responses to them, as recorded in his 'Jail Journal'. 'Jail Journal' is considered important on many levels, having been a source of strength for Mitchel, and now providing a literate and insightful historical political and social commentary and a symbolic statement of Irish determination and defiance. Although Mitchel resented captivity, he adjusted to his new surroundings and developed an environmental awareness. Holding strong anti-transportation views, Mitchel distinguished himself from the convicts, whom he considered were too well-treated. Eventually able to bring his family out and establish a farm, he enjoyed comparative liberty in the companionship of fellow Irish Exiles. However, Mitchel longed for true liberty and tired of the Englishness of Van Diemen's Land, and escaped to the United States (US) in 1853.

'Men of Honour?: The Escape of the Young Irelanders from Van Diemen's Land. [Paper in Special Issue: Escape: Essays on Convict Australia.]', Journal of Australian Colonial History v.7 (2005), , pp.139-160. <http://search.informit.com.au/fullText;res=APAFT;dn=200607427>

Southerwood, WT, Lonely Shepherd in Van Diemen's Isle: Father Philip Conolly, Australia's First Vicar-General, (George Town, Tas.: Stella Maris Books, 1988). [NMA 282.0924 SOU]

Williams, J, Ordered to the Island: Irish Convicts and Van Diemen's Land, (Sydney: Crossing Press, 1994).      The aim of this book is to examine the origins of Irish convicts transported to Van Diemen's Land and to discuss how they reacted to colonial conditions. Chapter 1 argues that the Catholic Irish background made these convicts unique in many respects compared with convicts of other nationalities in Van Diemen's Land. Chapters 2 and 3 analyse and compare the offences of Irish convicts with those of other prisoners. Chapter 4 uses available records to suggest the reasons for transportation to Van Diemen's Land as opposed to New South Wales. The last two chapters deal with the Irish convicts in Van Diemen's Land.

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Victoria

Campbell, R, 'Irish Lawyers in the Port Phillip District and Victoria 1838-1860', In Irish-Australian Studies: Papers Delivered at the Sixth Irish-Australian Conference, July 1990, Bull,P, C McConville and N McLachlaneds (Melbourne: La Trobe University, 1990), 39-50 pp.      The early lawyers who came from Ireland to the Port Phillip District and Victoria added life and colour to the place. William Foster Stawell won a steeplechase, and Redmond Barry engaged in illegal duelling. The appointment of another Irish barrister to the Supreme Court bench in 1856 raised the Irish composition of the bench to half. Another appointment in February 1857 raised the Irish composition to three quarters of the Bench. The Irish judges and others helped create the sort of peaceful society and security so necessary for development. As far as the court system goes one Irish influence was the St Patrick's Day holiday observed by the Supreme Court for many years. Irish lawyers in general, helped considerably in the establishment and extension of the traditional British Legal system, both in Melbourne and throughout Victoria.

Coughlan, N, 'The Coming of the Irish to Victoria', Historical Studies, Australia and New Zealand v.12 (45), 1965, pp.64-86.

Doyle, H, 'Allegations of Disloyalty at Koroit during World War I [Victoria]', In Bull,P, et al eds. Ireland and Australia, 1798-1998: Studies in Culture, Identity and Migration, (Sydney: Crossing Press, 1998), pp.165-176.      Irish traditions are perpetuated in the district around Koroit, near Warrnambool, Victoria, and during World War I Irish sentiment characterised the politics of the area. Koroit, as elsewhere in Australia, was polarised over conscription between political beliefs, on the one hand, and religious and racial identity, on the other. This essay investigates stories, both told and untold, of incidents surrounding the recruitment drives and conscription debate in Koroit that highlight the sectarian fears and the antagonism between labour and conservative, between Catholic and Protestant, of country Victoria at the time. Oral accounts, newspaper reports and historical records of events at Koroit differ, reflecting different perspectives of the social and political background. The uncertainty of knowledge about Koroit's wartime experience contributes to its significance, suggesting that what the locals want to remember is not the divisions but rather the strength that Irish nationalism once had in the town.

Fahey, C, 'A Fine Country for the Irish [Successful Agricultural Settlement in Northeastern Victoria]', Australian Journal of Irish Studies v.4 2002, pp.190-201.      This article examines the role played by Irish settlers in the agricultural settlement of Victoria. Contrary to popular notions that Irish settlement in 19th century northeastern Victoria was marked by rural poverty and social distress, Census data and statistical records relating to land selection in rural Victoria show that law-abiding selectors followed pastoral settlement, carving European-style farms out of the bush, recreating the institutions of the old world and laying the foundations of stable and prosperous rural communities. It is argued that the Irish played a prominent role in land selection, bringing extensive farming experience to a process of continual learning and adaptation to the Australian environment. Rather than rejecting the state, the Irish settlers capitalised on the opportunities provided by the state through the land acts, marshalling their resources and their families to exploit the law to its limit.

MacDonagh, O, 'The Irish in Victoria 1851–91: A Demographic Essay', ANU Historical Journal(10-11), 1973-1974, pp.26-39.

McConville, C, 'The Victorian Irish: Emigrants and Families, 1851-91', In Grimshaw,P, C McConville and E McEwen eds. Families in Colonial Australia, (Sydney: George Allen & Unwin, 1985), pp.1-8. [NMA 306.850994 FAM]

Morgan, P, 'The Irish in Gippsland', In Irish-Australian Studies: Papers Delivered at the Sixth Irish-Australian Conference, July 1990, Bull,P, C McConville and N McLachlaneds (Melbourne: La Trobe University, 1990), 120-135 pp.      Gippsland had the reputation of being the part of Victoria that the Irish settled in, the poorer land on which farmers struggled. Special concentrations grew up around Omeo, the Wood's Point goldfields, Dargo, Fish Creek, Cowwarr, Pakenham and Nar-nar-goon, KooWeeRup and Traralgon. Irish families came out from Ireland settled around Parramatta and the Hawkesbury and then moved south to arrive in the Monaro by the 1830s. Some Irish settled on the land, while others became involved in mining. As the gold ran out the miners began to select land for settlement in the area. The general history of the Irish in Gippsland is one of assimilation. One reason why the Irish assimilated was the absence in Gippsland of an old Anglican Anglo-Australian establishment, against which Irish Australians often defines themselves.

Murphy, E, From the Blackwater Valley to the Old Mallee: An Irish/Australian Family and Community History, (East Melbourne, Vic: Elizabeth Murphy, 2006). [NMA 929.20994 MUR]

O'Connor, PM, 'Recent Irish Immigration to Australia: A Melbourne Case Study [Melbourne, Victoria]', Australian Journal of Irish Studies v.4 2002, pp.220-230.      Ireland has historically been a country of net emigration. Although fewer Irish emigrated to Australia than to England or the United States (US) during the 19th and 20th centuries, they comprised a far greater proportion of the population of Australia. By the end of the 20th century, however, Ireland was experiencing net immigration, Irish immigration to Australia had diminished, and the Irish in Australia had become largely 'invisible' in Australian society. This article aims to enhance understandings of Irish immigration and challenge the assumption of seamless integration into Australian society by studying the motives for migration and the migration experiences of Irish immigrants in Melbourne, Victoria. The findings show that decision-making was multifactorial, including economic, social and political reasons as well as adventure-seeking motives, and supported by the existence of social networks. The study also shows inherent differences between the Irish from Northern Ireland and from the Republic of Ireland.

Pawsey, MM and St. Patrick's College (Manly, N.S.W.). Catholic Theological Faculty, The Popish Plot: Culture Clashes in Victoria 1860-1863, (Manly, N.S.W.: Catholic Theological Faculty, St. Patrick's College, 1983).

Rule, P, 'From Labourer to Gentleman : Social Mobility among Nineteenth Century Irish Immigrants to Geelong', In Irish-Australian Studies: Papers Delivered at the Sixth Irish-Australian Conference, July 1990, Bull,P, C McConville and N McLachlanedsMelbourne (Melbourne: La Trobe University, 1990), 201-215.      Present from the beginning of white colonisation, in sizeable numbers, wherever settlement occurred, the Irish were able to play a significant role in the formation of white Australian society, its politics and culture. In general, the Irish in Australia in Australia managed to straddle the boundaries between insiders and outsiders and to win for themselves social mobility and relative affluence. This paper explores the strategies a small group of Irish Australians who settled in Geelong, Victoria, employed to make this transition, and emphasises the rapidly changing Ireland they had grown up in. Generally, the picture is one of success. Whether or not Irish emigrants were originally of petit-bourgeois status, they became so in Australia. This paper analyses the success and failure of some Irish immigrants who settled around the Geelong area against this larger background.

Rule, P, 'Honora and Her Sisters: Success and Sorrow among Irish Immigrant Women in Colonial Victoria', In Irish-Australian Studies: Papers Delivered at the Seventh Irish-Australian Conference, July 1993, Pelan,R ed. Brisbane (Sydney: Crossing Press, 1994), 151-160.      By focusing on thirteen Irish women who arrived in Victoria in the late 1840s and 1850s and settled in Geelong, Pauline Rule aims to explore the diversity of the Irish female migrant experience, reconstituting its little stories rather than constructing a meta-narrative which symbolises women as bearers of tradition. The non-traditional nature of the activites of these Irish women settlers is described by considering their individual life histories. The most easily recovered story was that of Honora Hourigan, who, according to Rule, was a strong and capable woman, a widow who raised a large family and had a public persona as a business-woman and landlord. Other Irish women in Rule's study are: Ellen Cummins, Mary Davoren, Mary Dunn, Margaret Shanahan, Catherine Broderick, Penelope Dunn, Mary Gleeson, Bridget Dunn, Margaret Dunn, Anne Keegan, Ellen Hayes and Margaret Burke.

Santamaria, BA, Daniel Mannix, the Quality of Leadership, (Carlton, Vic.: Melbourne University Press, 1984). [NMA 228.092 SAN]

Tobin, GM, 'The sea-divided gael: A study of the Irish home rule movement in Victoria and New South Wales, 1880-1916', (Master of Arts, Australian National University, 1969).

Twycross, J, 'History, Heritage and Identity: How Big-Picture History and Heritage Impacts on Identity for the Descendants of Ah Shin of Victoria', In Discoveries, Deadends and Databases. Proceedings of the 10th Australasian Congress on Genealogy and Heraldry (Melbourne Congress), Roy,J ed. Melbourne Convention centre (Melbourne: The Genealogical Society of Victoria, 2003)       Family history and cultural heritage help define national identity. Many Chinese immigrants were not sojourners as widely believed, but became permanent, naturalised settlers who raised families, operated businesses and owned property. The Ah Shin family history illustrates the challenges of Chinese family history research and the complexity of notions of identity among the more than two thousand descendants of a Chinese-Irish union. Pan Ah Shin married Irish born Catherine Martin in Melbourne, Victoria in 1857 and the couple raised eight children on the Victorian goldfields before Catherine's early death in 1872. Most of the children and grandchildren married Chinese or Chinese-European partners. Although the preservation of Chinese tradition varies among descendants, generosity, gentleness, strength and a desire to be inconspicuous emerge as consistent family traits. From family history and reinforced family bonds emerges a clearer sense of heritage and identity, which in turn helps define the national image.

Waugh, M, 'The National System of Education in Victoria, 1849-1862: Sir Richard Bourke and the Irish Connection', In Bull,P, F Devlin-Glass and H Doyle eds. Ireland and Australia, 1798-1998: Studies in Culture, Identity and Migration, (Sydney: Crossing Press, 2000), pp.102-112.      A system of state aided National Schools for the poor was established in Ireland in 1831 with the aim of promoting religious harmony through 'mixed' education. Although most of the Irish National Schools became church schools by 1860, the original ideal survived in the Irish model of education that evolved in New South Wales, Victoria and Queensland. This article recounts the crucial role played in the push for National Education by Sir Richard Bourke, Governor of the colony of New South Wales from 1831. As a result of Bourke's work, the concept of National Education was carried through the education system of the new colony of Victoria which was created in 1851. The early introduction of Victoria's 'Free, Compulsory and Secular' Act of 1872 and its flow on to other States owes much to the experience of the National System, the forerunner of State education in Australia.
.

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Western Australia

Amos, K, The Fenians in Australia 1865-1880, (Kensington, N.S.W.: New South Wales University Press, 1988. [NMA 994.0049162 AMO]

Bolton, G, 'The Fenians are Coming, the Fenians are Coming', Studies in Western Australian History(4), Dec 1981, pp.62-67.

Cameron, J, 'George Fletcher Moore [Influential Member of 19th Century Western Australian (WA) Elite]', Studies in Western Australia History(20), 2000, pp.21-34.       The roles of George Fletcher Moore, a key figure in early Western Australia's (WA) ruling elite, included author, landowner, merchant, explorer, lawyer, legislator, poet, musician, and pioneer interpreter of Aboriginal language and customs. Confident, outgoing and determined to succeed, he was intolerant of weakness. Born in Ireland in 1798, Moore emigrated to WA in 1830 and claimed his land entitlements. This article traces Moore's life from developing Upper Swan agriculture and exploring the hinterland, with Aboriginal assistance, through his judicial career from 1832, to his political activity as Legislative Council member. While recognising Aboriginal prior occupation of the land, Moore unsuccessfully tried to teach them Christian principles. Despite the deepening 1840s depression, Moore maintained that colonists would prosper by simple living, hard work and financial prudence. He returned to Ireland for his wife's mental health and, after her death in 1863, he moved to London where he died in 1886. [NMA S 994.1 STU]

Chetkovich, J, 'Not for Economic Gain: Elsie Butler in Western Australia [Individual Experiences of Elsie and George Butler, Irish Emigrants to Western Australia (WA)]', Studies in Western Australia History (20), 2000, pp.151-167.       Documentary sources and historical analysis provide a picture of migration, but studies of ordinary individuals' experiences uncover more of the story of Irish emigration and the experience of the receiving country. Oral history reveals insights not accessible through any other source. In the story of Elsie Butler's emigration, cultural rather than economic issues are represented as the dominant factors. Religious tension, or the potential for it, was the major reason why Elsie Butler and her husband George left Ireland for Western Australia (WA) in 1958. As Irish Protestants, they were unaware that the majority of Irish migrants to Australia had always been Catholic, so they stayed outside Irish networks. The central liberating theme of their immigration experience was that they chose their friends due to mutual interest, not class, religion or family. Physical mobility accompanied their social mobility and the Butlers worked and lived in many remote areas of WA. [NMA S 994.1 STU]

Chetkovich, J, 'The Scattered Re-Gather : Irish Clubs in Perth, Western Australia in the Late Twentieth Century', The Australian Journal of Irish Studies v.1 2001, pp.70-80.      Since 1947, Western Australia (WA) has had the highest proportion of Irish born in its population of any Australian State. This article shows how the development of Irish clubs in Perth, WA reflected the changing profile, needs and attitudes of WA's Irish immigrant population in the 1980s and 1990s. The conservative, Nationalist Celtic Club, established in 1902, was the only Irish club until 1950, when the Irish Club was formed to preserve Irish culture and provide a link to the homeland for immigrants who saw themselves largely as exiles. The scene changed in the 1980s as those who were arriving were generally better educated and had a higher propensity to make return visits to Ireland than earlier arrivals. Irish theme pubs and cultural, business and sports groups grew, encompassing a wider breadth of Irish pursuits with a strong social component and an orientation to the present rather than the past.

Chetkovich, J, ''there would seem to be a Wonderful Freedom Out here': The Irish in Western Australia', In Wilding,R and F Tilbury eds. A Changing People: Diverse Contributions to the State of Western Australia, (Perth: Department of the Premier and Cabinet. Office of Multicultural Interests, 2004), pp.222-235.      The Irish have been part of Western Australia (WA) since the colony was founded and continue to be a vibrant presence. Prompted by social and economic devastation and political unrest in Ireland, and attracted by the Australian gold rushes, Irish migrants formed the second largest ethnic group in WA after the English. They were culturally and religiously distinct from the dominant English in the colonial period and experienced discrimination arising from historic English-Irish and Anglican-Catholic animosity. However, the Irish proved in the main to be successful and respectable citizens. Certain Irish stereotypical characteristics such as rebelliousness have become essential aspects of Australian identity. After World War II (WWII) the Irish became less distinctive amongst the diversity of new ethnicites in Australia as they were granted British subject status and were subsumed in an 'Anglo-Celtic' ethnicity. However, they have recently begun to re-assert their Irish cultural heritage through various clubs and associations.

Christie, EM, The Fenian Prisoners in Western Australia : Extracts Relating to their Escape by the American Barque 'Catalpa', 1876, (1955)      New light on the Fenians escape Catalpa incident / by John K. Ewers -- First mate told him 'no' / by John K. Ewers -- Fenians' escape / Theo. Archdeacon -- Conversations with the Catalpa / by H. Drake-Brookman.

Devoy, J, P Fennell and M King, John Devoy's Catalpa Expedition, (New York: New York University Press, 2006).      "The story of John Devoy's 1876 Catalpa rescue is a tale of heroism, creativity, and the triumph of independent spirit in pursuit of freedom. The daily log on board the whaling ship Catalpa begins with the typical recount of a crew intact and a spirit unfettered, but such quiet words deceive the truth of the audacious enterprise that came to be known as one of the most important rescues in Irish American history. John Devoy's men aided in the break-in and subsequent rescue of Irish political prisoners from the Australian coast, allowing millions of fellow Irishmen and American-Fenians, many of whom secretly financed the dangerous plot, to draw courage from the newly exiled prisoners."; "Philip Fennell and Marie King, both descendants of a pardoned Fenian prisoner, tell the story from John Devoy's own records and from the ship's logbooks. John Devoy's Catalpa Expedition includes an introduction by Terry Golway and the personal diaries, letters, and reports from John Devoy and his men."--BOOK JACKET.
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Erickson, R, 'Friends and Neighbours: The Irish of Toodyay [Irish Migrant Families in Western Australia (WA)]', Studies in Western Australia History (20), 2000: The Irish in Western Australia, pp.49-58.       The 1837 Western Australian (WA) census recorded fewer than 30 Irish women and not all were Catholic. The British Government decided to send equal numbers of free immigrants and convicts. Protestants in Perth, WA were reluctant to hire Irish servants even when 115 women, from poorer parts of Ireland, arrived. More Irish families and single women arrived, but colonists still needed servants. In 1853, the Resident Magistrate of Toodyay appealed for more young women for his district and by 1854, 50 had arrived. This article describes the Toodyay settlement, the employees' cottages clustered around the 'big house', and the persistence of British social class distinctions. The stories of three Irish farm families, the Pritchards, Beards and Lahiffs, and their gradual move to independence are told. They lived within walking distance of each other at Toodyay and, though illiterate, the Irish migrants sent their children to school and the class distinctions gradually faded. [NMA S 994.1 STU]

Halls, C, 'The Great Escape: Fenians at Fremantle 1868-1876', Port of Fremantle v.7 (4), 1982, pp.14-18.

Hardwick, G, 'The Irish R.M.: Capt. John Molloy of the Vasse [Western Australia (WA)]', Studies in Western Australia History(20), 2000, pp.1-20.      This article explores the life of the enigmatic Captain John Molloy, a senior administrative official in the Vasse, Western Australia (WA). Accounts of his parentage and upbringing in England vary. His military career began at the age of 13 and continued from his first naval commission in 1804 until emigration to WA in 1829. Appointed Government Resident for the Sussex District, and Magistrate and Collector of Customs at Augusta, he dealt with stealing, murder and drunkenness among whaling and sealing ships' crews visiting the WA coast. Relations with Indigenous Bibbulmen and Wardandi peoples were characterised by the violence and retribution which accompanied white settlers taking possession of traditional lands. During the 1840s and 1850s, Molloy ruled his small world as a benign autocrat. After his wife's death in 1843, he remained at Augusta and survived her by 24 years. Molloy owned large tracts of land and died a wealthy man. [NMA S 994.1 STU]

Jacobs, P, 'Free Women on a Savage Frontier: St John of God Sisters on the Kimberley Pearling Coast of Western Australia', Australian Journal of Irish Studies v.4 2002, pp.259-267.      Nine Irish nuns of the order of Sisters of St John of God arrived in the Beagle Bay mission in the Kimberley region of Western Australia (WA) in 1907. The Aboriginal mission was the sole European outpost on the Dampier Peninsula. As conditions on the mission became unviable, two of the group left to establish a separate foundation in Broome, WA, where they could secure an income and independence by providing nursing and schooling services, and minister to ill-treated women and children in the town. This article examines how the nuns overcame harsh conditions, illness and exile to stay in the Kimberley and work for the benefit of Aboriginal, Asian and mixed-race people in the heyday of the pearling industry, establishing close relationships with the Japanese, Filipino and Chinese communities in Broome and ignoring widespread prejudicial attitudes to form an enduring solidarity with the Indigenous Dampierland people.

McCarthy, N, 'Irish Rules: Gaelic Football, Family, Work and Culture in Western Australia', Australian Journal of Irish Studies v.3 2003, pp.33-48.      St Finbarr's Gaelic Football Club was formed in Perth, Western Australia (WA) in 1972 with the aim of providing a sporting outlet for Irish immigrants and a tangible link to Irish heritage through sport. Modelled on the Gaelic Athletic Association for the Preservation and Cultivation of National Pastimes (GAA), St Finbarr's promoted itself as a family club by constructing an identity that encompassed ethnicity, religion, work and sport. This article examines the cultural role of GAA, the second largest organisation in Ireland after the Catholic Church and arguably Ireland's most important cultural institution, and the intersection of sport and society within St Finbarr's. It is argued that in providing a focus for social interaction and support, St Finbarr's played a prominent role in the construction and reinforcement of popular Irish culture, identity and community in WA.

Mulcahy, CM, 'Mulcahy Bros. [Renowned Irish Family Firm in 19th Century Western Australia (WA)]', Studies in Western Australia History(20), 2000, pp.81-93.       Around 1900, the 'Mulcahy Bros.' firm was well known in Western Australia (WA) and this Catholic Irish family provided leadership and solidarity within the church and community. The first female Mulcahy emigrated to Australia in 1865 and settled in Queensland. Other family members followed as remittance or nominated passengers and some went to WA to prospect for gold. The role of the matriarch, not exclusively Irish, emerged as social and economic conditions left the female to rear the family in the male's absence. With competition for licences reduced by the temperance movement, the Mulcahys, like other Irish immigrants, moved into the hotel and catering trade. Their successful business ventures enabled the Mulcahys to be benefactors and founders of clubs in Fremantle, WA and the goldfields. They became involved in livestock, agriculture and later, racehorses. The extended Mulcahy family represented migrants seeking a better life and adapting effectively to Australian life. [NMA S 994.1 STU]

O Luing, S, Fremantle Mission, (Tralee, Ireland: Anvil Books, 1965).

Partlon, A, 'Champion of the Goldfields: John Waters Kirwan [Influential Newspaper Editor and the First Federal Member for Kalgoorlie, Western Australia (WA)]', Studies in Western Australia History (20), 2000, pp.94-116.      Born into a prosperous and political Irish family in Liverpool, England in 1869, John Waters Kirwan emigrated to Australia in 1889. In 1895 he became editor of the newly established 'Kalgoorlie Miner'. The newspaper prospered and exercised powerful political influence. Kirwan campaigned for miners and became involved in the alluvial rights dispute of 1898. Subsequently, Kirwan lost his bid for a Legislative Council seat and the paper successfully defended a libel suit. As 1900 approached, constitutional debate preoccupied the nation. 'Separation for Federation' was the cry of the 'Miner' for the goldfields to join the Federation as an independent State if 'Westralia' would not. After the overwhelming vote for Federation, Kirwan became the first Federal member for Kalgoorlie, Western Australia (WA) then an Independent in the Legislative Council for 38 years. Since his death in 1949, historians have unsuccessfully attempted to diminish his pivotal role in the WA Federal movement. [NMA S 994.1 STU]

Partlon, A, ''Singers Standing on the Outer Rim': Writing about the Irish in WA [Loss of Cultural Identity by Irish in Western Australia (WA)]', Studies in Western Australia History (20), 2000, pp.188-194.      According to 19th and early 20th century estimates, the proportion of Australians of Irish birth or descent was never less than 25 per cent, and may have exceeded 33 per cent, of the population. The Irish are now the second largest ethnic immigrant group, after the English, in Australia and globally this represents an Irish presence greater than that of any other country outside Ireland. Nevertheless, the Irish have failed to establish the same cultural presence as their counterparts in the United States (US). This article examines the factors militating against the emergence of an Irish separate force and identifies significant settlement differences between the Irish in Western Australia (WA) and the eastern States. The Irish in WA lost their cultural identity and began their long retreat into the twilight and became 'singers standing on the outer rim', exiles twice over, separated from home and the rest of the country. [NMA S 994.1 STU]

Pease, ZW, The Catalpa Expedition, (Carlisle, W.A.: Hesperian Press, 2002). [NMA 365.0994 PEA]

Reece, Bob ed. The Irish in Western Australia, (Nedlands, W.A.: University of Western Australia. Department of History. Centre for Western Australian History, 2000).

Russo, G, Race for the Catalpa : ( the Fenian Escape Story), ([Perth]: Lynward Enterprises, 1986). [NMA 365.450994 RUS]

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Women and their Influence

Campbell, M, 'Irish Women in Nineteenth Century Australia : A More Hidden Ireland ?', In Irish-Australian Studies: Papers Delivered at the Sixth Irish-Australian Conference, July 1990, Bull,P, C McConville and N McLachlanedsMelbourne (Melbourne: La Trobe University, 1990), 25-38 pp.      The very broad question is posed in this paper of whether and to what extent, Irish women in nineteenth century Australia may have been affected by ideas and models of Irish origin. It is an attempt to explore the need for a link between the study of Irish women in colonial Australia and the thesis that there existed within early Australian society a 'hidden Ireland'. It commences with an examination of the fragmentary evidence of the female presence within the renowned Ryan family of Galong in south west New South Wales, before moving to a more general assessment of the possible significance of that concept. Despite the limitations of the evidence it appears that in differing situations and with varying degrees of intensity, old world dispositions and aspirations continued to be relevant forces in determining the structures within which Irish women in colonial Australia lived.

Connors, L, 'The Politics of Ethnicity: Irish Orphan Girls at Moreton Bay', In Australian Studies: Papers Delivered at the Seventh Irish-Australian Conference, July 1993, Pelan,R ed. Brisbane (Sydney: Crossing Press, 1994), 167-181 pp.      The Irish Migration Scheme resulted in over 4000 young women arriving in the Australian colonies between October 1848 and August 1850, the latter years of the Great Famine. This paper focuses on those Irish young women who were forwarded by the Sydney migration officials to what was then, the most northerly districts of New South Wales. The reception of these young women at Moreton Bay reveals some important insights into the nature of ethnic politics and the significance of those politics at the personal level. This paper draws together two approaches, that of the influence of sectarian politics and of social history, to show the way in which these young women successfully contested and negotiated the hostile environment in which they found themselves. Drawing on the operation of the law, and the appearance of some of these young women in the courtrooms in Brisbane, Connors provides some insights into the politics and experiences of these women in defending their rights and status. (Author abstract)

Dixson, M, The Real Matilda: Women and Identity in Australia - 1788 to the Present, 4th ed., (Sydney: UNSW Press, 1999.      "The book pays special attention to the Irish." Author's introduction [NMA 305.420994 DIX]

Kiernan, Colm ed. Australia and Ireland 1788-1988: Bicentenary Essays, (Dublin: Gill and Macmillan, c1986). [NMA 305.89162 AUS]

McClaughlin, T, 'Exploited and Abused: Irish Orphan Girls', In Irish-Australian Studies: Papers Delivered at the Seventh Irish-Australian Conference, July 1993, Pelan,R ed. Brisbane (Sydney: Crossing Press, 1994), 161-166 pp.      The subject of this article is the approximately 4000 Irish orphan girls who came to Australia from Irish workhouses as government emigrants at the time of the Great Famine. McClaughlin believes they were exploited and abused because they were marginalised - destitute, famine victims who, dependent on the state, became victims of the system. Historical sources have provided evidence of abuse, ranging from physical abuse to emotional abuse such as vilification by the colonial press. McClaughlin's point is that exploitation and abuse are an essential part of these girls' stories. They were scorned by a patriarchal society for their Irishness, for their Catholicism and for being destitute, untutored, workhouse women. Feminist theory has encouraged historians to look to the orphans themselves for their own history.

McClaughlin, T, Irish Women in Colonial Australia, (St Leonards, N.S.W.: Allen & Unwin, 1998).

McClaughlin, T, 'From 'Barefoot and Pregnant? Irish Famine Orphans in Australia', Melbourne 1991 [Extract from 'Barefoot and Pregnant? Irish Famine Orphans in Australia: Documents and Register' by Trevor McClaughlin]', In Hayes,A and D Urquhart eds. The Irish Women's History Reader, (London: Routledge, 2001), pp.168-173.      Although solid, detailed research on Irish female immigration to Australia has not yet been conducted, this extract from 'Barefoot and Pregnant? Irish Famine Orphans in Australia: Documents and Register' by Trevor McClaughlin (published in 1991) records some of the formal and anecdotal evidence on single young female Irish orphans who arrived in Victoria and South Australia (SA) during the 1850s. More than 600 young single women who arrived in Melbourne, Victoria and Adelaide (SA) were victims of the Great Famine and had been selected from among the inmates of Irish workhouses by government officials. Their reception in Australia was not as warm as they might have wished, and critics of the orphan emigration program were quick to voice their disapproval of the young women. The brief history offers some insights into the hardships the young women endured but also highlights the remarkable contributions they made to the Australian population and character.

McClaughlin, T and L Connors, 'Irish Women, Aboriginal People, and the Law in Colonial Australia: Race, Power, and the Struggle for Inclusion', Australian Journal of Irish Studies v.4 2002, pp.135-143.      Irish women and Aboriginal people were among many groups considered 'problems' by both the state and society in 19th century colonial Australia. Colonialism in Australia and elsewhere fostered the development of a British, white, male cultural superiority complex that, both 'de facto' and 'de jure', excluded Indigenous people, Irish women and many minority ethnic groups. Selected cases from a research study that takes a postcolonial, subaltern approach to the experiences and interaction of Indigenous Australians and Irish women with the law in colonial Australia show how the law worked both to repress and protect the powerless, how minorities and individuals used the law to protect themselves, and how those in authority regularly reinvented racial and ethnic stereotypes. Over time, Irish-Australian women had a greater chance of being included in mainstream society than Aborigines, their interaction with the law possibly contributing to that process.

Mongan, C, 'What Happened to the Orphan Girls? [Plight of the Irish Orphan Girls Brought to Australia in the Mid 1800s]', Tain: The Australian Irish Network (28), Dec 2003-Jan 2004: 14-17.
      Between October 1848 and August 1850, more than 4,000 young Irish orphan girls were sent to Australia as part of a scheme to alleviate overcrowding in Irish workhouses. This article focuses on the plight of 108 of the young women who arrived on the 'Thomas Arbuthnot' and were sent to live in southern New South Wales (NSW). Although there was considerable controversy about the arrival of the orphans, they were unconditionally accepted by settlers in the Yass, NSW district. All were placed in suitable employment and many went on to make valuable contributions to the district. Indeed, the 'Thomas Arbuthnot' orphans helped to change perceptions of the orphans as 'useless trollops'. Although life in the colonies was hard by today's standards the girls enjoyed a better life than they would have had in the workhouses of post famine Ireland.

Reid, R, 'The Coming of the Irish Orphan Girls to the Southern Tablelands March 1850', Canberra Historical Journal (29), Mar 1992, pp.22-27.

Reid, R and C Mongan, 'A Decent Set of Girls... ‘: The Irish Famine Orphans of the Thomas Arbuthnot 1849-1850, (Yass, N.S.W.: Yass Heritage Project, 1996).       This is the story of the settlement of young Irish orphan girls in southern New South Wales, particularly Yass and Gundagai. They were sent out in 1850 during the Irish famine. Their supervisor was Charles Edward Strutt, the Surgeon-Superintendent on their ship of passage, the Thomas Arbuthnot. He kept a journal of the voyage out, and the journey to southern New South Wales where he found employment for the girls. The journal, which contains insights into the lives of Australia's early immigrants, is reproduced in this book.

Richards, Eric ed. Visible Women: Female Immigrants in Colonial Australia, (Canberra: Australian National University. Research School of Social Sciences. Division of Historical Studies and Centre for Immigration and Multicultural Studies, 1995).      This collection includes the following papers: Convict women and assisted female immigrants compared 1841 a turning point; glimpses of unassisted English women arriving in Victoria, 1860-1900; immigrant women in narratives of divorce; independent women - South Australia's assisted immigrants 1872-1939; and the unimportance of gender in explaining post-famine Irish emigration. Female immigration is seen as a crucial variable in the history of immigration to Australia and was a prominent factor in the design of the European population.

Rule, P, 'Honora and Her Sisters : Success and Sorrow among Irish Immigrant Women in Colonial Victoria', In Irish-Australian Studies: Papers Delivered at the Seventh Irish-Australian Conference, July 1993, Pelan,R ed. (Sydney: Crossing Press, 1994), 151-160.       By focusing on thirteen Irish women who arrived in Victoria in the late 1840s and 1850s and settled in Geelong, Pauline Rule aims to explore the diversity of the Irish female migrant experience, reconstituting its little stories rather than constructing a meta-narrative which symbolises women as bearers of tradition. The non-traditional nature of the activities of these Irish women settlers is described by considering their individual life histories. The most easily recovered story was that of Honora Hourigan, who, according to Rule, was a strong and capable woman, a widow who raised a large family and had a public persona as a business-woman and landlord. Other Irish women in Rule's study are: Ellen Cummins, Mary Davoren, Mary Dunn, Margaret Shanahan, Catherine Broderick, Penelope Dunn, Mary Gleeson, Bridget Dunn, Margaret Dunn, Anne Keegan, Ellen Hayes and Margaret Burke.

Rushen, E, Single and Free: Female Migration to Australia, 1833-1837, (Melbourne: Australian Scholarly Publishing, 2003.       Over four years in the 1830s, 2,700 single women emigrated from Britain and Ireland to Australia under a scheme to redress the gender imbalance in the fledgeling colonies and alleviate poverty in the United Kingdom (UK). The government sponsored scheme was administered by the London Emigration Committee (LEC), formerly the Refuge for the Destitute, which successfully despatched fourteen ships from London, Dublin and Cork to Sydney, New South Wales (NSW), and Hobart and Launceston, Tasmania. Details of the scheme's administration, the voyages, and the women's diverse expectations and experiences show that the emigres included many educated, skilled women and retrained destitute women, and counter criticisms that unaccompanied female emigration was not respectable and that the women were unsuitable for employment or marriage. However, the scheme was flawed by poor reception arrangements and lack of ongoing support for the women after arrival, and eventually discontinued in favour of family emigration. [NMA 352.2410994 RUS]

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