BACKGROUND

European museums generally began as private collections, often as adjuncts to learned societies or universities. They have traditionally concentrated on collecting and research, even after they opened their doors to the general public.

By contrast, North American, Australian and other ‘colonial’ museums were created specifically to educate the public about its new country – its natural history and later its human history and cultures. In their early days, they provided public programs in the form of lectures, educational articles in newspapers and some cultural events such as concerts. As such activities generated greater financial support, the museums increased their collecting role, often at the expense of public programs. Later, as universities took over the higher level teaching and research roles, museums began outreach services to schools and community groups, often in the form of loans of museum materials.

Today, educational processes have broadened to include both informal and web-based teaching, and museums are extending their public programs to accommodate these developments.

Although extensive, this bibliography is necessarily a work in progress, and it is hoped that readers will advise the National Museum of Australia Library of omissions or deficiencies. All such communications should be addressed to National Museum of Australia library.

Some hyperlinks are to subscription services available in the NMA Library. Readers at NMA can access them directly by clicking on the link. External readers can only do this if their institution also has a subscription to the relevant service.

SCOPE

This bibliography covers the role and philosophy of public programs in museums, from their earliest history to projections for the future. It focuses on national and state museums and other large institutions with similarly broad-based collections, predominantly historical, social and cultural but also including relevant material from science and technology museums. Outdoor and natural history museums are excluded. Practicalities of designing and staging exhibits, managing a loans program or funding public programs are excluded, as are internships and work experience programs.

Public programs are defined as any activity by the museum beyond collection and display, and include:

• lectures, storytelling, audiovisual presentations and concerts related to but not part of the exhibits;
• outreach to schools, indigenous groups and people with disabilities or with special interests, including loans programs;
• formal education programs managed or sponsored by the museum, e.g. museum schools, mentoring programs;
• use of technology to allow visitors to extend their understanding of the subject area of an exhibit (but not where technology is used merely to provide an alternative means of display);
• demonstrations for and/or hands-on activities by visitors to further their understanding of manufacture and/or use of historical objects, including wearing historical or work-specific clothing;
• dramatic presentations of historical events, past lives, other cultures, etc.

The Library also maintains bibliographies of specific areas of public programming, namely Theatre in Museums and Discovery Centres. For more detailed coverage of these topics, please refer to the relevant bibliography.

Although extensive, this bibliography is necessarily a work in progress, and it is hoped that readers will advise the National Museum of Australia Library of omissions or deficiencies. All such communications should be addressed to library@nma.gov.au.

REFERENCES

Philosophy, role, policy of public programming

Ames, Peter, ‘Marketing in museums: Means or master of the mission?’, Curator, v. 32 (1), March 1989, pp. 5–15. [NMA S 069 CUR]

Anderson, David, A Common Wealth: Museums and Learning in the United Kingdom, Report to the Department of National Heritage (London?: Department of National Heritage, 1997), pp. 24–27. [NMA 069.1 AND]

Bennett, Tony, The Birth of the Museum: History, Theory, Politics (London: Routledge,1997). [NMA 069 BEN]

Cassin, M. ‘Painting classes, dressing up and living in the past: Utility of workshops in museums’, in European Museum Communication: ICOM-CECA Regional Meeting, Brussels, June 1993, pp. 61–66.

Committee of Inquiry on Museums and National Collections, Museums in Australia 1975, chairman PH Piggott (Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service, 1975), pp. 12–14. [NMA REF 069.0994 AUS]

Excellence and Equity: Education and the Public Dimension of Museums (Washington, DC: American Association of Museums, 1992). [NMA PAM 069.1 EXC]

Garradd, Julie, ‘Performances, puppetry and poems – do they upset the serious minded museum-goer?’, in McMichael, Donald F, ed., Australian Museums – Collecting and Presenting Australia, Proceedings of the Council of Australian Museum Associations Conference, Canberra ACT Australia, 21–24 November 1990 (Melbourne: The Council, 1991), pp. 191–193. [NMA 069.0994 COU 1990]

Gurian, Elaine Heumann, ‘An afterward [sic], 1984’, in Nichols, Susan and others, eds, Museum Education Anthology 1973–1983: Perspectives on Informal Learning, a Decade of Roundtable Reports (Washington, DC: Museum Education Roundtable, 1984), pp. 24–25. [NMA 069.10973 MUS]

Hein, George E, ‘John Dewey and museum education’, Curator, v. 47 (4), October 2004, pp. 413–427, esp. pp. 421–424. [NMA S 069 CUR]

Hein, G, Learning in the Museum (London: Routledge, 1998), pp. 3–6. [NMA 069.15 HEI]

Henry, David, ‘Community involvement programmes – inside museums’, Science Museums and the Future, Australian UNESCO Seminar, Brisbane, 16–19 November 1976. [NMA 069.95 AUS]

Kotler, Neil and Philip Kotler, Museum Strategy and Marketing: Designing Missions, Building Audiences, Generating Revenue and Resources (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1998), pp. 34–36. [NMA 069.0688 KOT]

MacLulich, C, Education and Public Programs: 5.1 The Role of Public Programs (Sydney: Museums Australia Inc., 1994).

Main, Sarah, ‘Public programs: A productive partnership between education and exhibitions’, in Pathways to Partnerships, Linking Collections with Educators, Curators, Guides and the Community: Proceedings [of the Museum Education Association of Australia and the Museum Education Association of New Zealand Conference held 29 September–2 October, 1993] (Melbourne: Museum Education Association of Australia, 1993), pp. 245–249. [NMA 069 MUS]
Abstract: The how and why of holiday and weekend interpretive programs at the Australian Museum, and the importance to the process of productive partnerships.

A Manifesto for Museums: Building Outstanding Museums for the 21st Century ([UK]: 2004?). [NMA PAM 069.0941 MAN]

Montana, Adrian, ‘Selling loyalty? Marketing, museum education and public programs’, Museum National, v. 9 (4), May 2001, pp. 16–17.

Montana, Adrian, ‘Towards formulating policy for public program delivery’, in Pathways to Partnerships, Linking Collections with Educators, Curators, Guides and the Community: Proceedings [of the Museum Education Association of Australia and the Museum Education Association of New Zealand Conference held 29 September–2 October, 1993] (Melbourne: Museum Education Association of Australia, 1993), pp. 267–275. [NMA 069 MUS]

Munley, Mary Ellen, ‘Is there method in our madness? Improvisation in the practice of museum education’, in Anderson, Gail, ed., Reinventing the Museum: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives on the Paradigm Shift (Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press, 2004), pp. 243–247. Also in Pitman, Bonnie, ed., Presence of Mind: Museums and the Spirit of Learning (Washington, DC: American Association of Museums, 1999), pp. 133–139. [NMA 069.01 REI and NMA 069.0973 PRE]

Spencer, Diane, ‘Educators urged to harness museums’, Times Educational Supplement, issue 4205, 31 October 1997, p. 15 [accessed 29 July 2005].
Abstract: Looks into the highlights of the first major report on museum education entitled `A Common Wealth: Museums and Learning in the UK,' by David Anderson. Checklist which Manchester Museum of Science and Industry director Patrick Greene gave delegates to ensure that they just don't pay lip-service to museum education.

Spock, Michael, ‘Elegant programs and conversations’, in Pitman, Bonnie, ed., Presence of Mind: Museums and the Spirit of Learning (Washington, DC: American Association of Museums, 1999), pp. 141–149. [NMA 069.0973 PRE]

Steuert, Patricia A, Aylett Jenness and Joanne Jones-Rizzi, Opening the Museum: History and Strategies Toward a More Inclusive Institution (Boston: The Children’s Museum, 1993), p. 56. [NMA 069.1 STE]

Submission by the National Museum of Australia to the National Museum of Australia Review of Exhibitions and Public Programs (Canberra: The Museum, 2003). [NMA 069.099471 SUB]

Turpin, Margaret C, ‘Issues in formulating policy for public program delivery for museum educators’, in Pathways to Partnerships, Linking Collections with Educators, Curators, Guides and the Community: Proceedings [of the Museum Education Association of Australia and the Museum Education Association of New Zealand Conference held 29 September–2 October, 1993] (Melbourne: Museum Education Association of Australia, 1993), pp. 327–332. [NMA 069 MUS]

Wells, Marcella and Ross J Loomis, ‘A taxonomy of museum program opportunities – adapting a model from natural resources management’, Curator, v. 41 (4), December 1998, pp. 254–264. [NMA S 069 CUR]

Wilson, KE, ‘Crafting community-based museum experiences: Process, pedagogy, and performance’, Journal of Museum Education, v. 24 (3), 1999, pp. 3–6.

Yahya, L, ‘Mindful play! or mindless learning!: Modes of exploring science in museums’, New Research in Museum Studies, v. 6, 1996, pp. 123–147.

History of public programming

Allen, Louise Anderson, A Bluestocking in Charleston: The Life and Career of Laura Bragg (Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press, 2001).
Abstract: Biography of a woman who changed the cultural face of Charleston, SC, and the nation's approach to museum education.

Blais, Jean-Marc, ‘Museum-related education in Quebec: An historical survey’, Musees, v. 22, December 2000. Also online at [accessed 15 September 2005]

Bray, Margaret, ‘Museum as educator – current concerns’, unpublished master’s thesis, Monash University, 1994, 135 pp. [NMA 069.15 BRA]
Includes some history of public programs in Australia and elsewhere, and deals in depth with educational programs at the Australian Museum and the Museum of Victoria.

Casey, Dawn and Kirsten Wehner, ‘Accounting for audiences in Australian museums’, in Year Book Australia 2001 (Canberra: Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2001), pp. 534–547. Reprint also held. [accessed 6 May 2005]. [NMA 319.4 YEA 2001, and NMA PAM 069.10994 CAS]

Conn, Steven, Museums and American Intellectual Life, 1876–1926 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998), pp. 15–19. [NMA 069.0973 CON]

Curran, Emily, ‘Discovering the history of museum education’, Journal of Museum Education, v. 20 (2), Spring/Summer 1995, pp. 5–6. [NMA S 069.15 JOU]

Dickson, Lovat, The Museum Makers: The Story of the Royal Ontario Museum ([Toronto]: The Museum, 1986), pp. 60–65. [NMA 069.0971 DIC]

‘Education’, in Buddin, Margaret, Michael Organ and Louise Trott, A Guide to the Australian Museum Archives (Sydney: Australian Museum, 1988), pp. 29–30. [NMA REF 069.0994 BUD]
Abstract: List of collections related to the Museum’s education programmes.

GWW (pseud.), ‘Educational drive’, Sydney Morning Herald, 8 September 1936, p. 10.

‘Free nature films for children’, Sydney Morning Herald, 5 May 1953, p. 2.

Hale, Herbert M, The First Hundred Years of the South Australian Museum 1856–1956, Records of the South Australian Museum, Volume 12 (Adelaide: Museum Board, 1956), pp. 9–10, 145–146, 173, 193. [NMA 069.099423 HAL]

Hume, TA, ‘Museums and education in the United Kingdom’, in Australian UNESCO Seminar on "The Role of Museums in Education" , held at Australian Museum, Sydney, 26-29 September, 1966 (np, nd), pp. 12–19. [NMA 069.1 AUS]

Kanangra (pseud.), ‘Films and lectures at Museum’, Sydney Morning Herald, 20 May 1953, p. 2.

Kanangra (pseud.), ‘Free films for children at Museum’, Sydney Morning Herald, 21 August 1953, p. 2.

‘Katherine Coffey attracts the community into a general museum’, in Alexander, Edward P, The Museum in America: Innovators and Pioneers (Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press, 1997), pp. 161–171. [NMA 069.0973 ALE]

Kotler, Neil and Philip Kotler, Museum Strategy and Marketing: Designing Missions, Building Audiences, Generating Revenue and Resources (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1998), pp. 11–16. [NMA 069.0688 KOT]

Markham, SF and HC Richards, A Report on the Museums and Art Galleries of Australia and New Zealand (London: Museums Association, 1933), pp. 52, 59–60. [REF 069.0994 MAR]

Mather, Patricia and others, A Time for a Museum: The History of the Queensland Museum 1862–1986 (Brisbane: The Museum, 1986), pp. 106–116. Also published as Memoirs of the Queensland Museum, v. 24. [NMA 069.099431 MAT]

McDonald, Patricia, ‘Education’, in Strahan, Ronald and others, Rare and Curious Specimens: An Illustrated History of the Australian Museum 1827–1979 (Sydney: The Museum, 1979), pp. 151–160. [NMA 069.099441 STR]

Owen, David E, Lectures, Film Shows & Concerts (London: The Museums Association, 1956), p. 1. [NMA PAM 069.16 OWE]

Patterson, Joseph Allen, ‘Museum programs in education’, in Larrabee, Eric, ed., Museums and Education (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1968), pp. 37–47. [NMA 069.1 SMI]

Pescott, RTM, Collections of a Century: The History of the First Hundred Years of the National Museum of Victoria (Melbourne: The Museum, 1954), pp. 163–164, 169–171. [NMA 069.09945 PES]

Roberts, Lisa, ‘Changing practices of interpretation’, in Anderson, Gail, ed., Reinventing the Museum; Historical and Contemporary Perspectives on the Paradigm Shift (Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press, 2004), pp. 212–232. [NMA 069.01 REI]

Rose, Hanna T, ‘The Brooklyn Museum’, paper written 22 September 1950 and included in papers presented at Australian UNESCO Seminar ‘The role of museums in education’, National Museum of Victoria, Melbourne, 7–11 September, 1953. [NMA MACK Box 1, folder ‘Museums in education’].

Russell, Charles, ‘Museum education in America’, paper presented at Australian UNESCO Seminar ‘The role of museums in education’, National Museum of Victoria, Melbourne, 7–11 September, 1953 (unpublished). [NMA MACK Box 1, folder ‘Museums in education’]

Some Papers on the Role of Museums in Education. Occasional Papers in Education. (Paris: Education Clearing House, UNESCO, 1952). UNESCO/ED/Occ./13. [NMA MACK Box 1, folder ‘Museums in education’]

Thompson, Samuel, ‘Museums and education services in the United Kingdom’, paper presented at Australian UNESCO Seminar ‘The role of museums in education’, National Museum of Victoria, Melbourne, 7–11 September, 1953 (unpublished). [NMA MACK Box 1, folder ‘Museums in education’]

Thomson, I, ‘Modern museum requirements’, paper presented at Australian UNESCO Seminar ‘The role of museums in education’, National Museum of Victoria, Melbourne, 7–11 September, 1953 (unpublished). [NMA MACK Box 1, folder ‘Museums in education’]

Watts, Ian, ‘Museum education by associations: The short history of a museum education association in Australia’, Museum Education: Newsletter of the Museums Australia Education Group, n. 1 & 2, 1999, pp. 5–6. [NMA S 069.10994 MUS]
Abstract: Background from the introduction by Patricia McDonald to Museum Educators Think Aloud on Educational Philosophy (Quoll Enterprises, 1989).

Wilson, Jim, ‘Education and museums in Victoria: A long standing partnership’, in Pathways to Partnerships, Linking Collections with Educators, Curators, Guides and the Community: Proceedings [of the Museum Education Association of Australia and the Museum Education Association of New Zealand Conference held 29 September–2 October, 1993] (Melbourne: Museum Education Association of Australia, 1993), pp. 383–392. [NMA 069 MUS]

Wood, Miriam, ‘A brief outline of the what and why of the educational services in the Chicago Natural History (formerly Field Museum)’, paper presented at Australian UNESCO Seminar ‘The role of museums in education’, National Museum of Victoria, Melbourne, 7–11 September, 1953 (unpublished). [NMA MACK Box 1, folder ‘Museums in education’]

Zeller, Terry, ‘Arthur Parker and the educational mission of American museums’, Curator, v. 32 (2), June 1989, pp. 104-122. [NMA S 069 CUR]

Lectures, storytelling, audiovisual presentations, concerts

Bedford, Leslie, ‘Storytelling: The real work of museums’, Curator, v.44 (1), January 2001, pp. 27–34. [NMA S 069 CUR]

DiBlasio, Margaret and Raymond DiBlasio, ‘Constructing a cultural context through museum storytelling’, in Nichols, Susan and others, eds, Museum Education Anthology 1973–1983: Perspectives on Informal Learning, a Decade of Roundtable Reports (Washington, DC: Museum Education Roundtable, 1984), pp. 134–138. [NMA 069.10973 MUS]

Pohl, Sue, ‘Beyond the classroom’, Ethos, v. 11 (1), April 2003, pp. 17–18.
Abstract: Describes an interactive murder mystery programme for school groups at Sovereign Hill, Ballarat. Linked to the curriculum, it engages and motivates to discover, understand and learn about Australia’s gold rush days.

‘Popular activities provide programming opportunities’, Alberta Museums Review, v. 23 (2), Summer 1997, pp. 46–47.

Outreach (schools, special groups, loans programs)

A Catalyst for Change: The Social Impact of the Open Museum (Leicester: Research Centre for Museums and Galleries, 2002). [NMA PAM 069.094144 CAT]

Chadwick, John C and Kathleen A Lawicki, ‘Culture, context, and high tech: A theoretical and philosophical view of distance education at the New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science’, Spectra, v. 22 (2), Fall 1994, pp. 19–22, 47. [NMA S 069.52 SPE]

Dalip, Suryani, ‘Calligraphy course at museum’, New Straits Times (Malaysia) , 20 March 2002
http://search.epnet.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=anh&an=2W84255863902 [accessed 23 September 2005]

Dana, John Cotton, ‘The gloom of the museum’, in Anderson, Gail, ed., Reinventing the Museum; Historical and Contemporary Perspectives on the Paradigm Shift (Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press, 2004), pp. 13–29, esp. pp. 25–28. [NMA 069.01 REI]

Ebeling, Greg, ‘Australian Museum: Extension services’, Quarterly News, n. 3–4, December 1990, p. 14. [NMA S 069.09944 QUA]

Henson, Don, Mark Hall and Pam Judkins, ‘Community education: The evening class experience’, JEM: Journal of Education in Museums, n. 14, 1993, pp. 1–2. [NMA S 069.15 JOU]

Hull, Karen and others, ‘Freeing the spirit is the object’, Museums Journal, v. 94 (8), August 1994, pp. 25–27. [NMA S 069 MUS]

Martin, David, ‘Introducing outreach’, Museum Practice, v. 1 (3), 1996, pp. 38–39. [NMA S 069 MUS]

Museums in the Life of a City: Strategies for Community Partnerships (Washington, DC: American Association of Museums, 1995). [NMA PAM 069.0973 MUS]

Nightingale, Julie, ‘Back to school’, Museum Practice, Summer 2005, pp. 40–42.
Abstract: Marketing education programs to teachers. [NMA S 069 MUS]

Sheridan, Rae, ‘Cinderella revisited?: Loans services: 29 years down the track. Where to now?’, Museum Education: Newsletter of the Museums Australia Education Group, n. 1, 2000, pp. [6–7]. [NMA S 069.10994 MUS]

Winn, Philippa, ‘Sub-urban: Celebrating youth culture at the National Gallery of Australia’, Museum Education: Newsletter of the Museums Australia Education Group, n. 1& 2, 1999, pp. 22–23. [NMA S 069.10994 MUS]
Abstract: Report of a successful program to attract an audience from the 15–25 year age group.

Winstanley, Barbara, School-loan Services (London: The Museums Association, 1959), pp. 5–7. [NMA PAM 069.13 WIN]

Digital outreach

Bearman, David and Jennifer Trant, ‘Interactivity comes of age: Museums and the World Wide Web’, Museum International, v. 51 (4), October/December 1999, pp. 20–24.

Brazas, Julia Borst, Benjamin Lorch and Sean York, ‘Chicago WebDocent: Bringing museums to the digital classroom – on-line content management and presentation system (CMAP)’, in Museums and the Web 2004, Online Conference (2004)
http://www.archimuse.com/conferences/mw.html [accessed 23 September 2005].

Durbin, Gail, ‘Using the Web for participation and interactivity’, in Museums and the Web 2003, Online Conference (2003)
http://www.archimuse.com/conferences/mw.html [accessed 23 September 2005].

Falco, John, Dianna Newman and Patricia Barbanell, ‘New vision, new reality: Methodology and mission in developing interactive videoconference programming’, in Museums and the Web 2003, Online Conference (2003)
http://www.archimuse.com/conferences/mw.html [accessed 23 September 2005].

Hobbs, Valerie, Marjolein Towler and Diarmuid Pigott, ‘The Gernsback Machine: Towards a museum of possible futures and probable pasts’, in Museums and the Web 2004, Online Conference (2004)
http://www.archimuse.com/conferences/mw.html [accessed 23 September 2005].

Johnson, Brad, ‘Beyond online collections: Putting objects to work’, in Museums and the Web 2004, Online Conference (2004)
http://www.archimuse.com/conferences/mw.html [accessed 23 September 2005].

Li Jing and Zou Huilin, ‘Virtual museum marks special day’, China Daily, 18 May 2005, p. 3
http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/english/doc/2005-05/18/content_443323.htm [accessed 27 May 2005].

A Netful of Jewels: New Museums in the Learning Age, A Report from the National Museum Directors’ Conference ([London]: National Museum Directors’ Conference, 1999)
http://www.nationalmuseums.org.uk/images/publications/netful_of_jewels.pdf [accessed 23 September 2005].

Payne, Michael and Darren Peacock, ‘Collection object to learning object’, in Museums and the Web 2004, Online Conference (2004)
http://www.archimuse.com/conferences/mw.html [accessed 23 September 2005].

Formal education programs

Finnerty, Kelly O and others, ‘Finding a common language for museum process: Science Museum of Minnesota, Museum Magnet School’, Journal of Museum Education, v. 23 (2), 1998, pp. 3–5. [NMA S 069.15 JOU]

Klein, Christine, ‘Putting theory into practice: Compton-Drew Investigative Learning Center’, Journal of Museum Education, v. 23 (2), 1998, pp. 8–10. [NMA S 069.15 JOU]

Krapfel, Paul, ‘How museums can shape public education: Chrysalis Charter School’, Journal of Museum Education, v. 23 (2), 1998, pp. 11–13. [NMA S 069.15 JOU]

Takahisa, Sonnet, ‘A laboratory for museum learning: New York City Museum School’, Journal of Museum Education, v. 23 (2), 1998, pp. 5–8. [NMA S 069.15 JOU]

Websites

Australian Museum Audience Research Centre
http://amonline.net.au/amarc [accessed 23 September 2005]

Collections Australia Network (CAN), formerly Australian Museums Online (AMOL)
http://www.collectionsaustralia.net/ [accessed 23 September 2005]

George Hein, Lesley University, USA
http://www.lesley.edu/faculty/ghein/george.html [accessed 25 March 2010]

Melbourne Museum Education Service, schools programs and professional development programs for teachers
http://melbourne.museum.vic.gov.au/education/ [accessed 23 September 2005]

Museum-Ed, formerly a discussion list but now a free website
http://www.museum-ed.org/ [accessed 22 February 2006]