DISCOVERY CENTRES IN MUSEUMS
A Select Bibliography

Compiled by Jan Blank, Reference Librarian
November 2005

Contents

Background

Modern hands-on museums and science centres grew from two parallel developments: the first children’s museums in late 19th century USA and major traditional science museums in early 20th century Europe and North America. The early children’s museums were traditional museums housing exhibits thought to be of interest to children, while the early science centres were primarily collections of working models and demonstrations. The first truly hands-on institutions were the Boston Children’s Museum (created by Michael Spock in 1964) and the Exploratorium in San Francisco (created by Frank Oppenheimer in 1969). (Caulton, Tim, Hands-on Exhibitions, pp. 3–5.)

Discovery Centres are a recent manifestation of informal museum education. There are no clear definitions, and terminology tends to have different meanings for practitioners from different employment backgrounds. Meanings have also changed over time – hence the subtle shift from ‘discovery learning’ as envisaged by Jerome Bruner to ‘learning by discovery’ which forms the basis of more recent discovery centre design.

The following descriptions of discovery centres and related concepts and institutions have been found in the literature, but are indicative rather than definitive:

Discovery Centres began in schools in the early 1970s as a result of new curriculum ideas promulgated during the 1960s, and from there spread to stand-alone science discovery centres and to science and technology museums. To distinguish their centres from the more formal or school-based centres, many museums called them discovery rooms. Teaching methods and content have varied considerably over time, from ‘classrooms’ with formal teaching programmes to mini museums with or without interpreters and sometimes without objects. All have the intention of increasing public awareness and general understanding of science and technology. (various sources.)

Discovery Learning [is a type of] learning is based on the concept of the ‘Aha!’ moment – ‘Now I understand’. It is a form of active, experiential learning most commonly recognised in problem-solving, enquiry-based and ‘hands-on’ environments. … the objective … is still to enable the student to learn about and come to understand and apply ideas that exist independently of the learner. … It is most commonly associated with the Children’s Museums Movement, with Discovery Galleries in natural history museums, and with interactive science and technology centres. It can be seen occasionally in art galleries and ‘hands-on history’ displays. To be object-based, it must involve opportunities for object handling and associated activities. (Black, Graham, The Engaging Museum, pp. 138–139.)

Science Centre [is a facility that] focuses on illustrating the operation of technologies or scientific principles, rather than taking an historical approach. (MacDonald, George and Stephen Alsford, A Museum for the Global Village, p. 48.)

Discovery Room is a separate area, within the context of a larger institution, containing a collection of objects that can be touched and examined. It offers self-paced, self-directed educational activities. Through these objects and activities, the room offers visitors a means for understanding a larger collection. [However] … the essence of a discovery room [is its] fun and excitement. (Snakes, Snails and History Tails, pp. 11–12.)

Discovery Gallery is a public gallery … specifically designed to offer discovery learning opportunities to all the Museum’s visitors by means of direct access to artifacts and specimens. … [It] is a mini-museum, [representing] the collections of all the Museum’s curatorial departments … As a museum within the Museum, liaison with all curatorial, administrative, and program departments in the Royal Ontario Museum ensures the availability of support facilities and professional expertise. … [It] is ‘discovery’ oriented rather than ‘activity’ oriented … [and] provides a limited identification resource. Note: The Royal Ontario Museum has both discovery rooms and a discovery gallery. (Freeman, Ruth, The Discovery Gallery, pp 1–3.)

Micro Gallery [is a facility] to provide visitors to a museum or gallery with an enjoyable information system that they can use to find out more about the works on display. The underlying motivation is the belief that people visiting a museum want to find out about the exhibits; the more they learn the more they will appreciate and value their experience. (Morrison, Alex, ‘The micro gallery’, in Bearman, David and Archives & Museum Informatics, eds, Hands on Hypermedia and Interactivity in Museums, p. 13.)

Hands-on Exhibit or interactive museum exhibit has clear educational objectives which encourage individuals or groups of people working together to understand real objects or real phenomena through physical exploration which involves choice and initiative. (Caulton, Tim, Hands-on Exhibitions, p. 2.)

Children’s Museums are focused on serving the needs of children, but are equally institutions for the family offering opportunities for children and adults together. They aim to encourage learning – through discovery, play, fun, hands-on exploration and interaction with things and with people. They are rooted in their local communities, reflecting local circumstances, cultural and ethnic traditions and needs. (from Pearce, John, Centres for Curiosity and Imagination, p. 20.)

Scope of this Bibliography

Designing and operating a successful museum discovery centre requires an understanding of a complex web of information about:

Most of the useful manuals date from the late 1980s. Since then, technology has advanced enormously, museum education and its management have been significantly re-evaluated, and the technological expectations of museum visitors could not have been foreseen 15 years ago. Recent writings, often directed at the whole breadth of museum education, focus more on the learning process per se than on descriptions of individual discovery centres.

The bibliography therefore emphasises the theoretical bases of discovery centre purpose and design, although descriptive references are included so as to highlight a wide variety of solutions. Evaluation of existing centres and research in learning styles, effectiveness of interactive exhibit design and visitor expectations are essential planning and design tools. Other current topics are broader financial and management issues, and fully integrated information systems across the institution.

Within each section, the most recent publications are listed first. Although extensive, this bibliography is necessarily a work in progress, and it is hoped that readers will advise the National Museum of Australia Library of omissions or deficiencies. All such communications should be addressed to National Museum of Australia library.

Some hyperlinks are to subscription services available in the NMA Library. Readers at NMA can access them directly by clicking on the link. External readers can only do this if their institution also has a subscription to the relevant service.

Discovery Centres – Concepts and Descriptions

‘You only live twice: Richard Ward on the discovery centre concept’, Public Library Journal, v. 18 (3), 2003, pp. 51–52.

Pollock, Wendy, ‘Discovery rooms: “An alternative experience of the museum”’, ASTC Dimensions, v. 27 (6), November–December 1999, pp. 8–11.

Pearce, John, Centres for Curiosity and Imagination: When is a Museum Not a Museum? (London: Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation, 1998), 144 pp. [NMA 069.083 PEA]
When it is a discovery centre or similar. Looks at children’s museums in all their variety.

Edwards, Susie and Amy Roell, ‘Park a la cart: Taking interpretation to the visitor with discovery stations’, Legacy, v. 9 (6), November–December 1998, pp. 12–15.

Beniger, James R and Georgia Freedman-Harvey, ‘High tech – the dilemma for museums’, Museum Studies Journal, v. 3 (1), Fall–Winter 1987, pp. 66–73. [NMA S 069 MUS]
A study of the potential impact of new technologies on communication at the exhibition level, specifically the interface, via various interactive technologies, between objects and audiences. The article looks specifically at technology in the context of museums’ evolving role in society today, and compares case studies from the Getty Museum and the Ralph M Parsons Discovery Center for natural history and science.

‘Focus on discovery rooms’, Journal of Museum Education, v. 12 (2), Spring–Summer 1987.

Marsh, C, ‘The discovery room: How it all began’. Journal of Museum Education, v. 12 (2), 1987, pp. 3–5, 13.

Zucker, Barbara Fleisher, Children’s Museums, Zoos, and Discovery Rooms: An International Reference Guide (New York: Greenwood Press, 1987), 269 pp.

Roles of Discovery Centres in Museums

Hein, Hilde S, The Museum in Transition: A Philosophical Perspective (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Books, 2000), pp. 108–126. [NMA 069.01 HEI]
This chapter is on museums and education, looking especially at the 1990s. It succinctly covers the processes of learning, particularly from objects, the education bandwagon in the US which financially fuels museums’ educational programs, and rethinking education under the influence of psychologists Jean Piaget, LV Vigotsky and Jerome Bruner. In the late 1960s and mid 1970s, they inspired pragmatic curriculum reform movements in the US and UK which defended the concept of discovery learning and engaged with museums to engender discovery experiences. Hein goes on to discuss the integration of education in museums, and the ongoing conflict over visitors’ expectations of museums. She concludes that the 21st century view is that museums are places for learning to learn, and that the experience of learning is what museums now curate and preserve.

Tramposch, William, ‘Te Papa: An invitation for redefinition’, Museum International, v. 50 (3), issue 199, 1998, pp. 28–32.

‘Connections Discovery Centre, Exeter’, Museum Practice, v. 1 (1), March 1996, pp. 19–21.
With the introduction of the National Curriculum and Local Management of Schools, museum services are increasingly tailoring provision to specific learning objectives through gearing exhibitions and activities to core and foundation subjects. Exeter's museum service has responded to these changes by launching the Connections Discovery Centre.

Boe, Liv Hilde, ‘Children as a target group’, in Museum and Communities: Proceedings of the Annual Conference of the International Committee for Education and Cultural Action (CECA) of the International Council of Museums, Stavanger, Norway, July 1995 (Oslo: ICOM-CECA, 1996), pp. 64–69.

Doing Time: Museums, Education and Accountability (Sydney: University of Sydney, 1992). [NMA 069.10994 DOI]
Includes museum education; educational role of museums; learning; evaluation; public; marketing; sponsorship – cultural identity; participatory exhibitions; discovery rooms; educational activities; interpretation; visitor surveys; cultural tourism.

Freeman, Ruth and Royal Ontario Museum, The Discovery Gallery: Discovery Learning in the Museum (Toronto: Royal Ontario Museum, 1989), 93 pp. [NMA 069.5 FRE]
The Museum uses both a discovery room and a discovery gallery. The gallery was designed along the discovery learning principles set out by Muska Mosston in 1972, which progress from guided discovery through problem solving to an individual learner–designed program. The book traces the gallery’s development and redesign from 1983 to 1988, including floor plans, content of the Gallery over time, curatorial matters and visitor studies.

Danilov, Victor J, ‘Science exhibits for the young’, International Journal of Museum Management and Curatorship, v. 5 (3), 1986, pp. 241–257. [NMA S 069.9 INT]
Gives the history and development of discovery rooms in natural history museums and highlights their differences from science and technology centres. Significant discovery rooms, science centres, children’s museums and similar exhibits are described from the viewpoint of providing early childhood museum experiences.

Educational Theory and Practice in Relation to Discovery Centres

Fox, RG, ‘Discovery learning’, Journal of Instruction Delivery Systems, v. 18 (2), 2004, p. 40.

Mayer, RE, ‘Should there be a three-strikes rule against pure discovery learning? The case for guided methods of instruction’, American Psychologist, v. 59 (1), 2004, pp. 14–19.

Falk, JH and Lynn D Dierking, Lessons Without Limit: How Free-choice Learning is Transforming Education (Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press, 2002).

Allison, Mary and Fred Coalter, Realising the Potential of Cultural Services: The Case for Museums. Research Briefing Twelve Point Two November 2001 (London: Local Government Association, 2001), pp. 29–32. [NMA 069.10941 ALL]
Looks at needs of preschoolers and family groups in museums, and briefly describes sample programmes at English museums.

Falk, JH and Lynn D Dierking, Learning from Museums: Visitor Experiences and the Making of Meaning (Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press, 2000). [NMA 069.15 FAL]
This is in effect an update of their 1992 book, The Museum Experience. The same basic questions of why people go to museums and what they learn there are addressed in the light of later research and experience. A better understanding of how museum visitors make sense of their experiences allows museum staff to make more informed decisions about how to create the best possible exhibitions and programs.

Baird, D, ‘Erupting senses: A look at the new sensorial museum, Te Papa’, Montessori International Magazine, v. 9 (3), 1999, pp. 16–18.

Snowden, PL and L Garris Christian, ‘Four levels of learning centers: Activities for young gifted children’, Gifted Child Today Magazine, v. 21 (5), 1998, pp. 36–41.

Thomson, AK, ‘Discovery and learning: Lessons from Vygotsky’, in Graves, N, ed., Education and the Environment: Conference held Kuching, Malaysia, 1996 (World Education Fellowship, 1998), pp. 173–178.

Hooper-Greenhill, E, ‘Learning from learning theory in museums’, GEM News, n. 55, 1994, pp. 7–11.

Richards, WH and M Menninger, ‘A discovery room for adults’, Journal of Museum Education, v. 19 (1), 1993, pp. 6–11. Republished in Hirsch, JS and LH Silverman, eds, Transforming Practice: Selections from the Journal of Museum Education 1992–1999 (Washington, DC: Museum Education Roundtable, 2000), pp. 301–311. [NMA 069.071 TRA]
Describes four interactive art galleries designed to promote adult continuing art education in an informal environment and to test new ways to teach adult visitors about the Getty's permanent collection. Based on learning theories advanced by psychologists such as Jerome Bruner and Howard Gardner, each gallery provided interactive displays and docent-facilitators and presented information in flexible ways to allow for visitors' varied interests, abilities, and learning styles. Evaluation studies indicated that visitors spent more time and were more interactive in the smaller more intimate galleries. Overall, visitors appreciated the hands-on and facilitator-engagement features of the galleries, gained valuable knowledge about materials and techniques, but developed less skill in those techniques than educators had hoped.

Black, LA, ‘Applying learning theory in the development of a museum learning environment’, in McCormick, S, ed., What Research Says About Learning in Science Museums (Washington, DC: Association of Science-Technology Centers, 1990), v. 1, pp. 23–25.
Black’s review of learning theories primarily focuses on Jerome Bruner, Jean Piaget, and Benjamin Bloom, and also mentions Lev Vygotsky, Howard Gardner, and apprenticeship theory. For example, she explains that Bruner's work on discovery learning – acquiring the skills necessary to make discoveries by oneself – has been very influential to museums. She emphasizes that many people do not recognize that discovery learning has gradually been replaced with learning to discover, which distinguishes between experienced and inexperienced science learners. Black concludes the chapter by demonstrating how learning theory can be applied to exhibit development with examples from her museum.

Relationships with Existing Object Collections, Libraries and Other Facilities

Dawson, D, ‘Inclusion and ICT: The challenge’, Museum International, v. 54 (3), issue 215, 2002, pp. 59–63. [NMA S 069 MUS]
Discusses the new UK policies of networked information resources for all levels of society and education, particularly in relation to the museum, library and archive sector. Inclusiveness of resources, potential audiences and the widest possible range of technological delivery systems is addressed.

Blackaby, J, ‘www.historywired.si.edu: The search for just the right tool’, Curator, v. 43 (4), 2000, pp. 366–369. [NMA S 069 CUR]
A review of the Smithsonian’s History Wired site, which is an interface between the user and information on the museum’s collections. Despite the smoothness of the interface, he concludes that the problem of providing meaningful access to complex materials is still not resolved.

Pearson, David and Jocelyn Goddard, ‘All a loan’, Museums Journal, v. 99 (3), March 1999, pp. 30–31.
Reading Museums explain how they have broken down barriers between the permanent and educational collections by using discovery rooms.

Blackaby, James R, ‘Integrated information systems’, in Jones-Garmil, Katherine, ed., The Wired Museum (Washington: American Association of Museums, 1997), pp. 203–229. [NMA 069.0285 WIR]
Contextual questions asked of museums are often the most difficult to answer, due mainly to the lack of integrated information systems. Yet these systems are possible, even easy, to construct once the right questions have been asked and answered. This article addresses the problems and opportunities associated with the four areas in question: hardware, software, data and personnel. The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum is used as a case study.

Blackaby, J and B Sandore, ‘Building integrated museum information retrieval systems: Practical approaches to data organization and access’, in Bearman, D and J Trant, eds, Museums and the Web 97: Selected Papers (Pittsburgh: Archives & Museum Informatics, 1997), pp. 207–234. Also published Archives and Museum Informatics, v. 11 (2), 1997, pp. 117–146. [NMA 069.0285 MUS and S 069.5 ARC]
Ever wish you could put your fingers on all of the information about a specific topic in a museum, regardless of whether it was drawn from the objects collection, exhibit catalogues, the library’s holdings, or the prints and slides collection? This paper investigates fundamental approaches to constructing integrated museum information systems. Practical examples are drawn from major US projects, including the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.

Weinberg, Jeshajahu and Rina Elieli, The Holocaust Museum in Washington (New York: Rizzoli, 1995), pp. 63, 182–183. [NMA 069.0923924 WEI]
Describes the Wexner Learning Center within the Museum, and its use of audiovisual devices and online resources to enhance exhibits and provide research facilities for visitors. Note that the index incorrectly uses ‘Wehner’ instead of ‘Wexner’.

Carlisle, N and J Blackaby, ‘Preparing the catalogue for the 21st century’, in Fahy, A and W Sudbury, eds, Information: The Hidden Resource, Museums and the Internet: Museums Association 7th International Conference, held Edinburgh, November 1995 (London: The Association, 1995), pp. 117–128.

Bearman, David, ‘Interactivity in American museums’, Museum Management and Curatorship, v. 12 (2), June 1993, pp. 183–193. [NMA S 069.9 MUS]
Financial constraints have caused American museums to automate most of their office, sales and marketing, and events management systems. These areas have obvious and direct paybacks, but the last area to be automated is the collections. With the advent of interactive exhibits and public access to museum data, the economic benefits of automation in these areas are becoming apparent. The article looks at the role of museum documentation systems in collections management and exhibitions.

Lovis, Pamela M, ‘NatureSpace te ao o tane; A new partnership at the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa’, in Pathways to Partnerships, Linking Collections with Educators, Curators, Guides and the Community: Proceedings [of the Museum Education Association of Australia and the Museum Education Association of New Zealand Conference held 29 September–2 October, 1993] (Melbourne: Museum Education Association of Australia, 1993), pp. 215 –222. [NMA 069 MUS]
NatureSpace is a natural history resource centre opened in January 1993. It features a range of hands-on activities, display specimens and natural history collections presented in cabinets with pull-out drawers, and provides a venue for visitors to engage in self-directed discovery learning. The paper looks at the policy behind NatureSpace, particularly the philosophy of increasing public access to the total museum resource, and discusses its performance in the first six months. Includes floor plans and layouts.

Van Balgooy, Max A, ‘Hands-on or hands-off? The management of collections and museum education’, Curator, v. 33 (2), 1990, pp. 125–129. [NMA S 069 CUR]
In reaching a workable compromise between conserving objects and making the best educational use of museum collections, it is necessary to rethink the roles of both curators and educators. The current division of these roles may not be the best way to manage museums in the future.

Edwards, Yorke, ‘Museums must decide: Hands-on or hands-off?’, Muse (Canada), v. 5 (1), Spring/April 1987, pp. 18–23.
Includes hands-on exhibits; hands-on activities; educational role of museums; young visitors; Canada – care of collections; discovery rooms; collaboration with teachers.

Designing a Discovery Centre in a Museum

Pieters, J, R Limbach and T de Jong, ‘Designing discovery learning environments: Process analysis and implications for designing an information system’, International Journal of Learning Technology, v. 1 (2), 2004, pp. 147–162.

Morris, Jane, ‘In practice: Style and substance’, Museum Practice, v. 7 (2), issue 20, 2002, pp. 18–23. [NMA S 069 MUS]
The V&A's British Galleries have set new standards for the display and interpretation of decorative art. Despite warnings from critics that interactives would detract from the objects on display, the galleries use them extensively. Morris looks at how the project team successfully integrated the latest interpretive technology without compromising the appreciation of the collection. Understanding learning styles has been critical in meeting the needs of visitors. Includes floor plan showing discovery and study areas, and a list of activities available in the discovery area.

Macdonald, Sharon, Behind the Scenes at the Science Museum (Oxford: Berg, 2002), 293 pp. [NMA 069.0942134 MAC]
An ethnological study of the construction of science in museum exhibitions, part of a wider study that investigated understandings of science in diverse public settings. It studied both the makers and the consumers of a science exhibition, including the use of interactives and how they fit into the continuum from collections without context, through interpreted exhibitions to self-directed discovery learning. It also provides valuable insights into both the practical difficulties of providing choice of learning style and pathway, and the audience response. Extensive bibliography.

Brewer, Paul, ‘Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa’, Te Ara – Journal of Museums Aotearoa, v. 27 (1), May 2002, pp. 34–36.
In this, the first Journal since the opening of Te Papa, the author gives a brief account of developments to date, setting the scene for the account of the work of Te Papa National Services which follows.

Fry, Robert, ‘Delightful sound and distracting noise: The acoustic environment of an interactive museum’, Journal of Museum Education, v. 27 (1), Winter 2002, pp. 14–17. [NMA S 069.15 JOU]
Examines noise producers in an interactive museum environment and suggests ways to minimise their impact. Visitors, motors, noise spill from individual exhibits, ‘bright’ acoustic surfaces and architectural features can and do make enough noise to inhibit understanding of exhibits.

Tramposch, William J, ‘Exact imagining: The museum as a journey’, Museum News, v. 77 (2), March–April 1998, pp. 44–49, 53. [NMA S 069.0973 MUS]
Describes the philosophical bases of Te Papa and how these have been established in reality. The majority of cultural and historical exhibits are supported by area resource centres with interactives, and direct contact with museum staff, including curators who lead tours, give talks and respond to queries.

Ramsay, Grahame, ‘Investigating “interactives” at the Powerhouse Museum: Personal, social and physical context’, in Planning for Progress, Partnership and Profit. Proceedings of EdTech’98, Biennial Conference of the Australian Society for Educational Technology, Perth, 1988 [i.e. 1998]. (Perth: The Society, 1998). Also at http://www.aset.org.au/confs/edtech98/pubs/articles/ramsay.html [accessed 8 September 2005].
The term 'interactives' has been used within the Powerhouse Museum to describe a myriad of activities and learning aids. 'Interactives' range from activities that require visitors to use their whole bodies to solve problems to activities that involve simply clicking a button. Each interactive has quite a different outcome and provides a very different experience for the museum visitor. This paper considers the history, classification, instructional design and purpose of 'interactives' as part of exhibitions within the Powerhouse Museum. It describes trends in interactive exhibit design, key success factors for interactives and key limiting factors on the use of interactives within museum exhibits.

David, CL and D Dlugolenski, ‘Using educational technology in discovery learning’, in Muldner, T and TC Reeves, eds, Educational Multimedia/Hypermedia: 10th World Conference held Calgary, Canada, June 1997 (Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education, 1997), v. 2, p. 1442.

‘Interpretation’, Museum Practice, v. 2 (2), issue 5, 1997, pp. 32–94. [NMA S 069 MUS]
A discussion of media and techniques for communicating information and ideas about museum objects and collections. The ‘third age’ of museum displays is seen as interpreting the objects, often using multimedia and interactive tools. Several of the case studies are of discovery centres.

‘Time to go interactive?’, Museum Practice, v. 2 (1), issue 4, 1997, pp. 23–31.
Defines interactive exhibits and discusses their value and development in a museum. There is a useful table of positive/negative aspects and a list of features of good interactives. Several case studies are presented in semi-tabular form, covering aspects such as location, history, what visitors do, supporting materials and staff, design, maintenance, safety and costs.

Bearman, David and Jennifer Trant, ‘Licensing museum digital documentation for educational use’, Spectra, v. 25 (1), Fall 1997, pp. 20–23. [NMA S 069.52 SPE] http://www.mcn.edu/spectra

Serrell, Beverly and Britt Raphling, ‘Computers on the exhibit floor’, in Developing Museum Exhibits for Lifelong Learning (London: Stationery Office, 1996), pp. 136–141. [NMA 069.5 DEV]
Includes ten design principles for interactive programs.

Morrison, Alex, ‘The micro gallery: Observations from three projects: London; San Diego; Washington D.C.’, in Bearman, David and Archives & Museum Informatics, eds, Hands on Hypermedia and Interactivity in Museums: Selected Papers from the Third International Conference on Hypermedia and Interactivity in Museums (Pittsburgh, PA: Archives & Museum Informatics, 1995), pp. 13–20. [NMA 069.134 INT]
The concept of a micro gallery is to provide visitors to a museum or gallery with an enjoyable information system that they can use to find out more about the works on display. The underlying motivation is the belief that … the more they learn, the more they will appreciate and value their experience. All three projects use a computer interface to link visitors to a multipart encyclopedia and catalogue of art works.

Cook, J and N Richardson, ‘Interactivity without computers’, Museum Development, October 1994, pp. 36–37.

Bearman, David, ed., Hypermedia and Interactivity in Museums: Proceedings of an International Conference, Archives and Museum Informatics Technical Report; 14 (Cambridge, MA: Museum Documentation Association, 1993), 436 pp.
Five themes are covered in this volume: the changing museum; museum issues; museum projects, broader cultural issues; and technological issues.

Bryden, M, ‘The discovery room at the National Museums of Scotland’, in Hemsley, J, N Sandford and D Saunders, Electronic Imaging and the Visual Arts: EVA 4th Annual Conference, 1993 (Aldershot: Brameur Ltd, 1993), pp. 10–21.

Bryden, M, ‘The discovery room’ [National Museums of Scotland], Information Services and Use, v. 13 (4), 1993, pp. 303–312.

James, Alison, ‘The discovery approach at Stanraer Museum’, Scottish Museum News, v. 8 (3), Autumn 1992, pp. 10–12.

Snakes, Snails and History Tails: Building Discovery Rooms and Learning Labs at the Smithsonian Institution (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1991), 69 pp. [NMA 069.150973 SNA]
The Smithsonian Institution developed the first discovery room in a museum in 1971. Since then, five discovery rooms have evolved at the Smithsonian, each for a different purpose, under different circumstances, and to serve different needs. This book follows the process of creating a discovery room from the initial ‘Why do you want one?’ to the final understanding of how and why such rooms succeed.

Kennedy, Jeff, User Friendly: Hands-on Exhibits That Work (Washington, DC: Association of Science-Technology Centres, 1990), 77 pp. [NMA 069.53 KEN]
This book looks at the human factors that affect hands-on exhibits. Illustrations provide data on human dimensions for visitors of all ages and sizes, including wheelchair users. The manual includes creating legible, accessible labels; designing user-friendly viewers and eyepieces; selecting exhibit controls and making them easy to use; planning audio exhibits and noise control.

Hood, MG, ‘Leisure criteria of family participation and nonparticipation in museums’, Marriage and Family Review, v. 13 (4), 1989, pp. 151–169.
Hood summarizes three studies she conducted concerning the criteria that individuals and families employ for making choices about their leisure time, including whether or not to visit museums. Among the findings which relate to learning were that more highly educated families and more frequent visitors are more likely to visit the museum for an educational experience. For many others, especially families of middle income and education, and with small children, a visit would fulfil a social need. Hood contends that some visitors may find the educational offerings and learning experiences available at museums to be more appealing if they are promoted under such terms as discovery, exploration, participation, or interaction. She further states that even if families do come with the intention of learning, feelings of physical and psychological wellbeing in their surroundings are equally important considerations for them.

MacDonald, George F and Stephen Alsford, A Museum for the Global Village: The Canadian Museum of Civilization (Hull, Ontario: The Museum, 1989), 235 pp. [NMA 069.971 MAC]
Looks at the philosophical and practical bases of the planning and design of the Museum. Orienting the visitor and interpreting the exhibits (pp. 138–148) is useful in the context of discovery centres.

Fenn, Julia, ‘Danger in the discovery room’, Museum Quarterly, v. 16 (2), Summer 1987, pp. 8–11, 26.

Phelan, Brian, ‘The Sussex time machine’, Journal of Education in Museums, n. 8, Summer 1987, pp. 11–12.

Robinson, Jeri and Patricia Quinn, Playspace: Creating Family Spaces in Public Spaces (Boston: Boston Children’s Museum, 1984).
Includes discovery rooms; resource centres; educational games; children; family groups; USA – history of a museum; museum attendance; space allotment; costing; glossaries.

Managing a Discovery Centre in a Museum

Black, Graham, The Engaging Museum: Developing Museums for Visitor Involvement (London and New York: Routledge, 2005), 308 pp. [NMA 069.1 BLA]
The objective of the book is to outline best practice (with an academic underpinning) in practical interpretive approach.

Caulton, Tim, Hands-on Exhibitions: Managing Interactive Museums and Science Centres (London and New York: Routledge, 1998), 155 pp. [NMA 069.5 CAU]
The book aims to assist those contemplating the development of an interactive exhibition. It includes a comprehensive coverage of the history of hands-on exhibitions, the educational context, exhibit development, finance, marketing, operations management, human resource management, managing educational programmes and special events, and a look at the future for hands-on exhibitions. Discovery galleries are indexed specifically only to p. 35, but in fact are referred to throughout the book.

Samis, Peter S, ‘Teamwork & the museum interactive: First experience with the hybrid model at the San Francisco Museum of Modern Art’, in Bearman, David and Archives & Museum Informatics, eds, Hands on Hypermedia and Interactivity in Museums: Selected Papers from the Third International Conference on Hypermedia and Interactivity in Museums (Pittsburgh, PA: Archives & Museum Informatics, 1995), pp. 187–200. [NMA 069.134 INT]
Describes the development of three different multimedia programs, discusses overall strategy and planning, and evaluates the preliminary lessons drawn. Where the National Gallery in London used consultants, and the Minneapolis Institute of Art developed everything in house, this hybrid model was chosen not just for budgetary reasons, but specifically to develop in-house expertise, to play an active role in both editorial and design processes, and to maintain ownership of the end product.

Pawlukiewicz, Janet and Linda Stevens, ‘Docents: We couldn’t live without them’, Journal of Museum Education, v. 12 (2), Spring–Summer 1987, pp. 11–13.

Research and Evaluation

Falk, John H and others, ‘Interactives and visitor learning’, Curator, v. 47 (2), May 2004, pp. 171–198. [NMA S 069 CUR]
This paper describes a collaborative effort in 2001 by researchers … [which] investigated two aspects of interactivity: 1) visitor perceptions of interactivity in two different contexts, a museum and a science centre; and 2) the types of short- and long-term learning that resulted from use of interactives in these two institutions. It also includes a brief review of visitor studies from the previous ten years.

Packer, Janis Merle, ‘Motivational factors and the experience of learning in educational leisure settings’ (unpublished doctoral thesis, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, 2004), 327 pp. http://adt.library.qut.edu.au/adt-qut/uploads/approved/adt-QUT20050208.101214/public/02whole.pdf [accessed 10 November 2005]
This research investigates the impact of motivational factors on the experience of learning in educational leisure settings. Visitors seek an experience that combines elements of learning and discovery, and is perceived to be both effortless and fun. It is concluded that the characteristics of learning in educational leisure settings contribute to a synergy between the educational and entertainment aspects of the experience. Situational factors are more important than personal factors in motivating visitors to engage in and experience this type of learning. This is of great significance to educational leisure settings as it implies that sites have a reasonable degree of control over the motivational factors that influence visitor engagement in learning. Full text:

Kelly, Lynda and others, Knowledge Quest: Australian Families Visit Museums (Sydney and Canberra: Australian Museum and National Museum of Australia, 2004), 64 pp. [NMA 069.10994 KNO]
Family groups are recognised as a significant component of the visitors to both these museums; families are also major users of discovery centres. This report is both a review of the literature of the previous 70 years and a field study, with the aim of providing information that can be used to ensure that programming and marketing meet the needs of this audience sector.

Paris, SG, ed., Perspectives on Object-centered Learning in Museums (Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum, 2002), 383 pp. [NMA 069.15 PER]
A collection of articles in a new area of research in museum education. Understanding the interactions between objects, children and museums is fundamental to our understanding of how museums function as educational, cultural and leisure settings.

Lynch, Rob and others, Leisure and Change: Implications for Museums in the 21st Century (Sydney: Powerhouse Museum, 2001), 96 pp. [NMA 069.0994 LEI]
This study indicates a turning point for the future positioning of museums. It highlights the necessity of locating any discussion of museum participation within the context of leisure choice and the impact of changes that are affecting the way these choices are made. As we enter the 21st century, museums find themselves struggling to maintain audiences in competition with an increasing number of leisure options. How museums position themselves so that they appeal to leisure consumers while clearly differentiating themselves from theme parks, amusement arcades etc is a challenge for the future.

Hooper-Greenhill, Eilean and Theano Moussouri, Researching Learning in Museums and Galleries 1990–1999: A Bibliographic Review (Leicester, UK: University of Leicester, Research Centre for Museums and Galleries, [2001]), 42 pp. [NMA 069.072 HOO]
A review of research into museum education, in order to discover what was already known, to assess the theoretical approaches taken [in] carrying out the research on learning, and to identify the locations and types of museums where most of the work has been carried out. It places learning in museums and galleries in the context of influential learning theories, and groups research according to the type of institution in which it was carried out.

Pekarik, Andrew J and others, ‘Exploring satisfying experiences in museums’, Curator, v. 42 (2), April 1999, pp. 152–173. [NMA S 069 CUR]
This article presents results from an ongoing research project that investigates the experiences visitors found satisfying in nine Smithsonian museums. It also proposes an interpretation for these data, and suggests some possible applications.

Grove, Tim, ‘I never knew history could be so fun: Visitor experiences in the Hands-On-History Room’, History News, v. 54 (4), Autumn 1999, pp. 18–20. [NMA S 973 HIS]

Hinton, Morna, ‘The Victoria and Albert Museum Silver Galleries II: Learning style and interpretation preference in the Discovery Area’, Museum Management and Curatorship, v. 17 (3), September 1998, pp. 253–294. [NMA S 069.9 MUS]
The V&A decided in the mid 1990s that audience needs would be the key factor in the content and design of the galleries. Hinton first examined theories of learning style and then undertook quantitative research. By analysing how learning style relates to interpretation preference she has assessed the usefulness of the evaluation instruments as predictors for exhibition design. She also found that the least common personal learning style favours discovery areas. The article includes extensive quantitative data, a layout plan of the Silver Gallery, and descriptions of its interpretive devices and the kinds of learners each would appeal to.

Rennie, LJ and TP McClafferty, Handbook for Formative Evaluation of Interactive Exhibits (Canberra: Questacon, The National Science and Technology Centre, 1996).

Johnston, David and Leonie Rennie, ‘Assessing the impact of interactive science and technology centres on the visiting public’s perception of science and technology’, in Pathways to Partnerships, Linking Collections with Educators, Curators, Guides and the Community: Proceedings [of the Museum Education Association of Australia and the Museum Education Association of New Zealand Conference held 29 September–2 October, 1993] (Melbourne: Museum Education Association of Australia, 1993), pp. 183–188. [NMA 069 MUS]
Science and technology centres epitomise interactive museums, but little is known about how adult visitors learn from interactive exhibits. This paper reviews previous research and outlines an approach to developing instruments to measure any learning which occurs as a result of visits to interactive science and technology centres.

McClafferty, Terry and Leonie Rennie, ‘Learning in science centres and science museums’, in Pathways to Partnerships, Linking Collections with Educators, Curators, Guides and the Community: Proceedings [of the Museum Education Association of Australia and the Museum Education Association of New Zealand Conference held 29 September–2 October, 1993] (Melbourne: Museum Education Association of Australia, 1993), pp. 223–228. [NMA 069 MUS]
It is generally assumed that learning occurs in science education centres and science museums. This paper reviews recent studies in these settings and synthesises the results to provide research based guidelines for museum educators to improve visitors’ enjoyment, attitudes and learning.

White, J, ‘What we have discovered about discovery rooms’, in McCormick, S, ed., What Research Says About Learning in Science Museums (Washington, DC: Association of Science-Technology Centers, 1990), pp. 7–9.

Alt, Michael B and Steven Griggs, ‘Evaluating the Mankind Discovery Gallery: Four studies’, in Patten, LH, ed., Evaluating the Mankind Discovery Gallery: Four Studies (Toronto: Royal Ontario Museum, 1989).

Birney, Barbara A, ‘Criteria for successful museum and zoo visits: Children offer guidance’, Curator, v. 31 (4), 1988, pp. 292–316. [NMA S 069 CUR]
This study examines young students’ perceptions of museums and zoos, optimal-learning social environments, behaviour during visits, and reactions to formal and informal learning experiences. The results indicate that the learning process in museums and zoos may be intricately tied to feelings of satisfaction, but the unanswered question revolves around how exhibits stimulate learning with a specific social context.

Websites

Auckland Museum http://www.aucklandmuseum.com [accessed 10 November 2005]
Stevenson Discovery Centre is aimed at children from preschool to age 12, and comprises two separate themed interactive areas: Weird & Wonderful (natural history) and Treasures & Tales (social history). Staff members are always present in both areas to enliven the spaces, interact with visitors, answer questions and aid better appreciation of the many objects on display. As a rule, everything within reach is ‘hands-on’. Precious, fragile and/or rare items are displayed either behind perspex or out of reach. Sliding drawers contain displays of fragile objects that cannot be handled; finding something unexpected gives the visitor a sense of discovery. Both areas are well supplied with picture and reference books, suitable for all ages, which are placed near relevant exhibits.

International Museum Day Bibliography 1999 ‘Pleasures of Discovery’ http://icom.museum/bibliography99.html [accessed 29 November 2005]

Museophile – Museum Interactives http://www.museophile.lsbu.ac.uk/interactives [accessed 29 November 2005]

Museum Learning Collaborative http://www.museumlearning.com/ [accessed 29 November 2005]
This literature database is no longer being updated. For more recent entries please visit www.informalscience.org.[accessed 29 November 2005]

Museum-Ed http://www.museum-ed.org/about/index.shtml [accessed 13 October 2005]
This is a not-for-profit Web site dedicated to providing museum educators opportunities to ask questions, exchange ideas, explore current issues, share resources, reflect on experiences, and inspire new directions in museum education. Museum-Ed is not a membership organization. All of the resources on the Museum-Ed Web site are free and available to educators in any type of museum, and anyone interested in the field of museum education.

World Museum Liverpool http://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk [accessed 29 November 2005]
Offers learning opportunities for all the family through free activity programmes as well as in hands-on centres. The Planetarium, Treasure House Theatre, Clore Natural History Centre, Bug House, Aquarium, Weston Discovery Centre (human history) and an early years play area at the Maritime Museum are all venues for these programmes, with a quarterly Guide to all activities.