This bibliography is intended to update Hooper-Greenhill, Eilean and Theano Moussouri Researching learning in museums and galleries 1990-1999: a bibliographic review Leicester: University of Leicester, Research Centre for Museums and Galleries, [2001?] and is restricted to recent writing on this subject.
The bibliography lists theoretical works first, then a number of works which deal with specific sites or research projects. In the course of compling a number of checklists and evaluation tools were located. Although possibly outside the scope of a bibliography on learning theory they have been appended for information.
Although extensive, this bibliography is necessarily a work in progress, and it is hoped that readers will advise the National Museum of Australia Library of omissions or deficiencies. All such communications should be addressed to National Museum of Australia library.
Some hyperlinks are to subscription services available in the NMA Library. Readers at NMA can access them directly by clicking on the link. External readers can only do this if their institution also has a subscription to the relevant service.
REFERENCES
Learning theory applied to museum learning
Rethinking the Visitor Experience: Transforming Obstacle into Purpose v.45 (2), April 2002, pp.109-121.[NMA S 069 CUR]
'The purpose of museums and those of their visitors often have little in common - despite the growing body of knowledge about museum learning and visitors' motivations. Based on concepts of experiential learning envisioned a century ago by the American educator and philosopher John Dewey, this paper explored bringing those purposes into closer alignment
Adams, M, J Luke and T Moussouri, 'Interactivity: Moving Beyond Terminology', Curator v.47 (2), May 2004, pp.155-170.[NMA S 069 CUR]
Although a number of studies have focused on interactives in museums, the field would benefit from an intensive look a how visitors perceive of and learn from these experiences. Drawing upon studies in this area, this paper looks at the role of interactives in museums by exploring three broad themes: clarity of purpose and underlying assumptions; design factors; and social engagement and learning.
Anderson D, Lucas K B and Ginns I S, 'Theoretical Perspectives on Learning in an Informal Setting.', Journal of Research in Science Teachingv.40 (2), February, pp. 177-199.
Research into learning in informal settings such as museums has been in a formative state during the past decade. It is proposed that the human constructivist view of learning can guide research and assist the interpretation of research data because it recognises an individual's prior knowledge and active involvement in knowledge construction during a museum visit, supported by reference to the findings of case study of the knowledge transformations of three Year 7 students on a class visit to a science museum. The findings are shown to be consistent with the human constructivist view of learning as learning was sometimes incremental and sometimes involved substantial restructuring of knowledge. Thus, it is argued that the human constructivist view of learning has much merit and utility for researchers investigating the development of knowledge and understanding emergent from experiences in informal settings.
Anderson, D and others, 'Development of Knowledge about Electricity and Magnetism during a Visit to a Science Museum and Related Post-Visit Activities', Science Education v.84 (5), 09/01 2000, pp.658-679.
This article reports on part of a larger study of how 11- and 12-year-old students construct knowledge about electricity and magnetism by drawing on aspects of their experiences during the course of a school visit to an interactive science museum and subsequent classroom activities linked to the science museum exhibits. The significance of this study is that it focuses on an aspect of school visits to informal learning centers that has been neglected by researchers in the past, namely the influence of post-visit activities in the classroom on subsequent learning and knowledge construction. This study provides evidence that the integrated series of post-visit activities resulted in students constructing and reconstructing their personal knowledge of science concepts and principles represented in the science museum exhibits, sometimes toward the accepted scientific understanding and sometimes in different and surprising ways. A descriptive interpretive approach was adopted, with principal data sources comprising student-generated concept maps and semistructured interviews at three stages of the study. Findings demonstrate the interrelationships between learning that occurs at school, home, and in informal learning settings. The study also underscores for classroom teachers and staff of science museums and similar centers the importance of planning pre- and post-visit activities. The importance of this planning is not only to support the development of scientific conceptions, but also to detect and respond to alternative conceptions that may be produced or strengthened during a visit to an informal learning center. © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Sci Ed 84:658?679, 2000.
Black, G, The Engaging Museum : An Interpretive Approach to Visitor Involvement, (London ; New York : Routledge, 2005) [NMA 069].
Cameron, F, 'Contentiousness and Shifting Knowledge Paradigms: The Roles of History and Science Museums in Contemporary Societies', Museum Management and Curatorship v.20 (3), 2005, pp.213-233.from Scopus [accessed 26 September 2006]
Museums globally exist in an academic, cultural and social context of contest and controversy. A long-established practice of exhibiting 'the facts', 'truth', 'national history' or unproblematic conceptions of 'other' places and peoples is no longer wholly sustainable in an environment where the self-evidence of all these things is under question. Topics of global importance that challenge, upset, intrigue and attract are now legitimate areas for museological investigation. Ongoing cultural, social and political tensions in Australia and in other countries also heighten the need for civic spaces where diverse communities might learn about and debate issues of contemporary relevance and importance. Therefore, what civic and social roles can history and science museums in the 21st century play in this climate of contestation, and as knowledge sources? This question will be explored drawing on findings from the international research project Exhibitions as Contested Sites-the roles of museums in contemporary society (funded by the Australian Research Council with partners the University of Sydney, the Australian Museum and the Australian War Memorial). © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Carliner, S, 'Modeling Information for Three-Dimensional Space: Lessons Learned from Museum Exhibit Design', Technical Communication v.48 (1), 2001, pp.66-81.From Scopus [accessed 26 September 2006]
Reports the results of an observational study of museum exhibit design. Suggests eight communication practices from museum exhibit design that could be transferred to information design for the Web.
Clarke, P, Museum Learning Initiative Website,
South West Museums Council produced this website in 2001 as part of its Museum Learning Initiative (MLI). The site covers:education policy audiences how people learn in museums, lifelong learning evaluation. The 'toolkits' on the site are intended for use by individuals and groups for CPD, training and general service development activities and provide a wide range of stimulating ideas and sources of information.
Clarke, P and Resource: The Council for Museums,Archives and Libraries, Museum Learning on Line, ([London] : Resource: the Council for Museums, Archives and Libraries, 2001) , [30] pp. <www.mla.gov.uk/resources/assets/M/muslearn_printout_pdf_1249.pdf> [accessed 10 May 2007].
Corredor, J, 'General and Domain-Specific Influence of Prior Knowledge on Setting of Goals and Content use in Museum Websites', Computers and Education v.47 (2), 2006, pp.207-221.From Scopus [accessed 26 September 2006]
This article explores the influence of prior knowledge on the setting of goals and use of content in museum website visits. Goal setting is a crucial process in organizing the activities of surfers in open environments, such as museum websites, where surfers faced ill-defined tasks. To this end, 12 graduate students were asked to surf through two museum websites in different domains (anthropology and natural sciences). Half of the participants had robust background in anthropology. Within each of these groups, half of the students had spent more than four years in graduate school, while the other half were first year students. Visited pages and concurrent comments were recorded, coded and analyzed. Results showed that domain specific knowledge influences goal setting process. Visitors with high domain knowledge tended to set larger and more consistent goal structures than first year students. Results showed also that general previous knowledge influences content use. Surfers with higher general skills tended to elaborate more on content and use more intensively the information available at the websites. © 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Crowley, K, G Leinhardt and C- Chang, 'Emerging Research Communities and the World Wide Web: Analysis of a Web-Based Resource for the Field of Museum Learning', Computers and Education v.36 (1), 2001, pp.1-14.From Scopus [accessed 26 September 2006]
In this paper we contrast the possibilities of the World Wide Web to transform communities of educational researchers with actual patterns of use of The Museum Learning Collaborative Web site. We highlight patterns of user interaction that have emerged and discuss the problems and opportunities of creating shared research resources in emerging fields such as museum learning research. Our findings have direct implications for three stakeholders: program funders, ourselves as project researchers, and the larger museum research community. © 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd.
Cullen M, 'Enhancing Multiple Intelligence through Museum Visits.', SCIOS v.41 (3), November 2005, pp.27-29-27-29.Informit [accessed 31 August 2006]
Museums are a great resource for learning. Students should be exposed to as many different experiences, disciplines, skills and vocations as possible. If young children are granted access to the wealth of information contained in museums they may discover new skills, passions and areas of current interests and learning which have effective and 'real' applications in the world. If a museum visit is well integrated into school programs it can be a very valuable facilitator of learning and enhance development of multiple intelligences in children. [Author abstract, ed]
De Vito, B, 'Studying Artifacts of Visitor Learning', Curator v.48 (2), April 2005, pp.193-209.[NMA S 069 CUR].
Douglass J, 'The Best Exhibition Design? could it be Scandinavian?', Teacher(171), July 2006, pp.68-71.
Is it possible to design an exhibition that keeps children entertained and informed in a museum environment? Absolutely, but there are many challenges to resolve. The author explains how staff at Sydney's Australian National Maritime Museum put together an Australian design - for a successful Vikings exhibition. When designing such an exhibition, from the outset it is essential to determine and understand the audience. The museum staff decided that Vikings did not constitute an easily comprehensible topic for children five years or under, as their grasp of the historical past is not fully formed. The space was therefore designed for six-to-twelve year olds - students in Years One to Six. The idea behind providing children with their own separate area is to help them understand the more difficult concepts introduced in the Vikings exhibition. It can be helpful if children have a place where they encounter ideas at a simple level, preparing them for the family's visit to the exhibition itself. The children's area should complement but not duplicate the exhibition content. It is not just a play area bearing little relevance to the actual exhibition. The challenge in designing a children's area was to extract ideas from the complex themes of the Viking exhibition that could form the basis of simple yet challenging interactive displays and activities. The main themes of the exhibition were identified, as were the artefacts most likely to capture children's interest. As Viking Village, as the activity area was named, was developed for children, the museum staff were able to break a few rules in representing the past that would never be condoned in an exhibition of historical artefacts or a record of the Vikings from archaeological finds. Finally, what of the adults, unaccompanied by children, often seen wandering around the Viking Village? The space was developed and designed for children, but it seems many adults have appreciated a simple, succinct overview of the Viking world; they like touching Viking material and especially stamping their names in runes! [Author abstract, ed]
Economou, D, WL Mitchell and T Boyle, 'Requirements Elicitation for Virtual Actors in Collaborative Learning Environments', Computers and Education v.34 (3-4), 2000, pp.225-239.From Scopus [accessed 26 September 2006]
This paper reports on the elicitation of requirements for Virtual Actors in Collaborative Virtual Learning Environments (CVLEs). The methodological approach followed involves the phased development of a series of learning environments which are observed in use by parents, children and teachers. The focus of study is on the interactivity and social communication issues that arise in the learning situation. The research uses as its case study the work of the Manchester Museum Education Service with children at Key Stage Level 2 (9-11 years old) of the National Curriculum. The particular learning situation is based on senet, an ancient Egyptian board game from the Museum's collection of artefacts from the pyramid builders' town of Kahun. Results are presented of the first phase prototype, a single display groupware system where interactions take place face-to-face in the 'real-world' external to the environment. Results are also presented of the second phase prototype, a multi-user groupware environment in which the users are remotely located and interaction is mainly internal to the environment. The paper discusses how the results from these two phases are being used to establish requirements for a CVLE to be developed in the third phase of research. © Elsevier Science Ltd.
Elliott, C, Literacy, Museums and the Arts: An Annotated Bibliography, <http://www.centreforliteracy.qc.ca/publications/rtmuseum/RTM.pdf> [accessed 10 May 2007]
This document presents a total of 130 references and annotations of works that are related to the topic of adult learning through museums or through the arts in general. Although not all of the materials cited focus specifically on adult models or experiences, all pertain to education in and through museums, art education theory and practice, and/or successful models of collaboration. Section 1 presents 59 annotated references with keywords drawn from the Canadian Literacy Thesaurus. Selected topics covered in the publications annotated are as follows: pictorial-verbal and analytic-holistic learning strategies; linking museums and libraries; the role of popular theater in adult education programs; participatory practices in adult education; reaching new adult learners through museums; fostering shared learning among children and adults; integrating literature and the arts; functional literacy, cultural literacy, and educational reform; museums' roles in literacy and in adult education; learning from objects; a framework for diversifying museum audiences; partnerships between museums and schools; adult learning in nonformal institutions; and community and institutional partnerships in art education. Section 2 lists 60 readings recommended by participants. Section 3 briefly describes the materials available at 11 World Wide Web sites of organizations concerned with and/or involved in adult learning and education through museums or the arts. (MN)
Falk, JH and LD Dierking, The Museum Experience, (Walnut Creek, CA: Alta Mira Press., 2000)
Falk and Dierking suggest using the term “free choice learning” as an alternative to using the phrase “informal learning,” echoing the concerns of some CILS community members who feel “informal learning” is too broad a construct. The authors provide a new model for understanding and framing the museum experience, called the Interactive Experience Model, which connects personal, sociocultural, and physical contexts together, one of the goals of CILS. Falk and Dierking discuss the associative, object-based learning that takes place in museums; provide concrete examples; and relate this kind of learning to the sometimes-formal characteristics of exhibitions themselves. They then suggest that museums need to rethink how they plan exhibits, publicize and promote museums and exhibits, and, especially, how museums orient visitors.
Falk, JH, 'IDENTITY AND PROCESS - an Identity-Centered Approach to Understanding Museum Learnin', Curator v.49 (2), April 2006, pp.151-166.BMUSE number: 34411[NMA S 069 CUR].
Falk, JH, 'Identity and Process - an Identity-Centered Approach to Understanding Museum Learning', Curator v.49 (2), April 2006, pp.151-166.[NMA S 069 CUR].
Falk, JH and others, 'Interactives and Visitor Learning', Curator v.47 (2), May 2004, pp.171-198.[NMA S 069 CUR]
This paper investigates two aspects of interactivity:
1) visitor perceptions of interactivity in two different contexts, a museum and a science centre; and
2) the types of short- and long-term learning that resulted from use of interactives in these two institutions
Falk, JH and LD Dierking, Learning from Museums : Visitor Experiences and the Making of Meaning, (Walnut Creek, CA : AltaMira Press, 2000) , 272 pp.[NMA 069.134 FAL].
Fowler, D, 'Getting to know you : How a knowledge of visitor behaviour, and learning theory, should influence exhibit and program design in museums', (unpublished Master of Education thesis,Queensland University of Technology, 2000), 65 pp.[NMA THESIS 069.072 FOW].
Gioftsali, K, 'Museum Learning as Participation in a Community of Learners: A Sociocultural Perspective', Museological Review(9), 2003, pp.49-58.
Goodacre, EJ and G Baldwin, Living the Past : Reconstruction, Recreation, Re-Enactment and Education at Museums and Historical Sites, (London : Middlesex University Press, 2002) , 224 pp.[NMA 907 GOO].
Gray P C, 'Public learning and the art museum : Future directions.', (unpublished Master of Arts thesis,University of Western Sydney, 2002) <http://library.uws.edu.au/adt-NUWS/public/adt-NUWS20030617.150139> [accessed 10 May 2007]
The question of the art museum's failure to engage wider audiences remains relatively unexamined and has neither widely catalysed nor changed professional practice either in curatorial, educational, or public program domains. In this study, the educational aim of the art museum is discussed. The work of Pierre Bourdieu is examined. Bourdieu argues that museum display principles, interpretive strategies, and educational techniques, propagated within the paradigm of modernism, implicitly assume possession of cultural literacy skills which are the sole privilege of the educated. The author concludes that working within and across the curatorial and educational environments of an art museum, while avoiding the pitfalls of the modernist tradition, is also a significant step toward engaging wider audiences than the cultural 'elite' in the development of visual literacy skills. [ADT abstract]
Guisasola,J JG, M MM Morentin and K KZ Zuza, 'School Visits to Science Museums and Learning Sciences: A Complex Relationship', Physics Education v.40 (6), 11 2005, pp.544-549.
Visits to science museums can provide a complement to the science learning carried out in schools. However, science museums are informal learning environments where teachers usually have very little control over the ideas being implicated or the experiments that the students carry out. It is necessary to design educational materials for the visit to the museum which integrate learning in schools and in museums, and which stimulate the interest and curiosity of the students by promoting independent learning via working in a group guided by the teacher. This article explains how we have designed these educational materials and their main characteristics.
Gurian, EH, 'What is the Object of this Exercise? A Meandering Exploration of the Many Meanings of Objects in Museums ', Daedalus v.128 (3), 1999, pp.163-184.
Hall, T and others, 'The Visitor as Virtual Archaeologist: Explorations in Mixed Reality Technology to Enhance Educational and Social Interaction in the Museum', In VAST 2001 - Virtual Reality, Archeology, and Cultural Heritage, Anonymous , 91-96 pp. [accessed 26 September 2006]
SHAPE, "Situating Hybrid Assemblies in Public Environments", is an EU Future and Emerging Technologies project of the Disappearing Computer initiative, concerned with designing and developing novel technology to enhance interpersonal interaction in public locales: Exploratoria, galleries, and museums, for example. This paper outlines a use of hybrid reality technology to enhance users' social experience and learning about antique artefacts and their related history. We describe early SHAPE technical work where we explore whether there are benefits: Educational and social, to visitors of extending virtual archaeology or augmented reality archaeology into the public setting of the museum.
Hein, GE, 'Progressive Education and Museum Education: Anna Billings Gallup and Louise Connolly', Journal of Museum Education v.31 (3), , pp.161-174. <http://www.lesley.edu/faculty/ghein/downloads/HeinJMEv31n3.pdf>[NMA S 069.15 JOU].
Hein, GE, 'The Challenge and Significance of Constructivism', In Proceedings, Hands on! Europe Conference, Anonymous (London: Discover, 2001), 35-42. pp.
Hein, GE, 'Constructivism: More than Meaning Making', Museological Review v.7 (1), 2001, pp.1-17.
Hein, GE, 'John Dewey and Museum Education, ', Curator v.47 (4), 2004, pp.413-427. <http://www.lesley.edu/faculty/ghein/downloads/Hein_DeweyMuseumEd.pdf>[NMA S 069 CUR].
Hein, GE, 'Museum Education', In S. MacDonald ed. A Companion to Museum Studies, (Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2006), <http://www.lesley.edu/faculty/ghein/downloads/HeinBlackwellChapter.pdf>[NMA 069 COM].
Hein, HS, The Museum in Transition : A Philosophical Perspective, (Washington : Smithsonian Institution Press, 2000) , 203 pp.
Henning, M, Museums, Media and Cultural Theory, (Maidenhead, England ; New York : Open University Press, 2006) , 183 pp.
Treats the museum as a media-form with a detailed and critical discussion of a wide range of display techniques. It is an indispensable introduction to some of the key ideas, texts and histories relevant of the museum in the 21st century.
Hooper-Greenhill, E, The Educational Role of the Museum, (London ; New York : Routledge, 1999) , 346 pp.[NMA 371.384 HOO].
Hooper-Greenhill, E, Museum, Media, Message, (London ; New York : Routledge, 1999) , 299 pp.
Hui D, 'Managing Intersubjectivity in the Context of a Museum Learning Environment.', International Journal of Learning v.10 2003
'Papers presented at the Tenth International Literacy and EducationResearch Network Conference on Learning. Institute of Education,University of London 15-18 July 2003' This paper proposes important new implications for problem-solving in terms of both approach and procedure, as well as informing pedagogical instruction in problem-solving, for both formal and informal learning contexts. This study investigates the dynamics of intersubjectivity within the zone of proximal development. Its theoretical framework is based on three principal approaches to intersubjectivity, with reference also to self-regulative speech.The author further argues that co-operative learning participants approach, and temporarily retreat from, intersubjectivity on the social plane, thus providing a mechanism for managing such intersubjectivity. Data were collected from groups interacting with a Dymaxion map exhibit in a museum located in a Midwest US urban city.
Kelly L, 'Understanding Conceptions of Learning.', In 'Change and Choice in the New Century' : [Symposium Proceedings of the Change in Education Research Group 2nd Symposium, 2000, G Segal : S Schucked. Sydney, NSW (Sydney, NSW: Change in Education Research Group, University of Technology, Sydney, 2000), 115- 121 pp.
Current theories of learning emphasise learner-centred approaches: individuals construct knowledge based on their prior knowledge, experiences and interests within a social context. This research looks at how an individual's 'learning image' can be uncovered, that is, their personal philosophy of learning, using a sample of adult visitors to the Australian Museum. The problem is that there have been few studies that have looked more broadly at learners' understandings of learning, especially in informal contexts such as museums. This research project is concerned with how adults talk and think about learning: what it is, how it happens, why they learn, where and who with. The research is located within grounded theory drawing on phenomenography as an analysis tool. [
Kelly L, 'Understanding Museum Learning from the Visitor's Perspective.', In 'AARE 2002 Conference Papers' [Computer File] : [Conference of the Australian Association for Research in Education], compiled by P L Jeffrey.ed. Brisbane (Melbourne: Australian Association for Research in Education, 2002) <http://www.aare.edu.au/02pap/kel02014.htm>
Museums are increasingly positioning themselves in the market as places for rich learning experiences. When asked why they visit institutions such as museums people often say 'to learn' but there has been little exploration into what this actually means. As current theories of learning focus on the meanings an individual makes based on their experiences, both alone and as part of a community, ther is a need to better understand learning from an individual's perspective. One way of beginning to explore how individuals make meanings about learning in relation to their museum experiences is to link their experiences to how they see themselves as a learner - their 'learning image'. The author's research seeks to understand learning from an individual's point of view through studying the question: how do adult museum visitors describe learning? Through a series of depth interviews people were asked to describe their views of learning and how these related to their museum learning experiences. This paper outlines the research to date through an analysis of both the literature and preliminary research findings and, from this, discusses issues this raises for further study. [Author abstract, ed]
Kelly L, 'What does Learning Mean for Museum Visitors?', International Journal of Learning v.10 2003, pp.1333-1343.
The current view of learning as a sociocultural practice and lifelong process emphasises the individual and social nature of learning and the meanings that an individual makes based on his or her knowledge, experiences and social circumstances. In studying learning, however, much of the emphasis has been on what, where and how people learn. The author's research (undertaken in in the Australian Museum, Sydney) focuses on uncovering a range of individual 'learning images': personal views, perceptions and ideas about learning. As informal learning environments, museums are places for rich learning experiences. This research seeks to understand learning from an individual's point of view through studying the question: How do adult museum visitors describe learning? First, a sample of visitors were interviewed in detail to describe their views of learning and how these related to their museum learning experiences. Second, a survey of 100 visitors to the Australian Museum was undertaken to gather quantitative data about what learning, education and entertainment meant; what aspects of learning theory were of most relevance to visitors and what resources people accessed when learning something new. 'Papers presented at the Tenth International Literacy and EducationResearch Network Conference on Learning. Institute of Education,University of London 15-18 July 2003'
Kelly L, 'What is Learning … and Why do Museums Need to do Something about it?', In Why Learning? Seminar Co-Presented by the Australian Museum Audience Research Centre and the University of Technology, Sydney, Anonymous Australian Museum, Sydney Australian Museum, 2003).
Kelly L and others, Knowledge Quest : Australian Families Visit Museums. (Sydney Canberra: Sydney Canberra: Australian Museum National Museum of Australia, 2004.; Australian Museum National Museum of Australia, 2004)
There are two parts to this study: a literature review and field research. The field research included a total of 29 case study families in Sydney and Canberra who had visited either the Australian Museum or National Museum Australia. The sample included a variety of family types with children under 12 years of age. Families were interviewed with the main topics focusing on why and how they visited, what they remembered from a recent visit, their access to information which encouraged them to visit and things which discouraged them from visiting. In exploring these topics, the field research also looked at broader issues such as the dynamic of family groups, the motivation behind educational leisure activities, parenting styles and personal identity. [p.11-12, ed]
Lang, C, J Reeve and V Woollard, The Responsive Museum : Working with Audiences in the Twenty-First Century /, (Aldershot, Hants, England ; Burlington, VT : Ashgate, 2006) .
Latchem, J, 'How does Education Support the Formation and Establishment of Individual Identities?', International Journal of Art and Design Education v.25 (1), 2006, pp.42-52.From Scopus [accessed 26 September 2006]
This article examines how education could support the formation and establishment of identities. It focuses on museum education and in particular artist interrogations of museum narratives. These interventions into museum pedagogy are critical reworkings of the presentation of cultural histories in dominant narratives. The aim of this research is to examine the consequences of these interventions for pedagogy in the museum site, when linear narratives are subject to reconstruction by individual agencies. The complexities of museum pedagogy are revealed and analysed in order to identify models of teaching and learning that are inclusive. The work of Fred Wilson, artist and curator of an installation project at the Maryland Historical Society in Baltimore, USA, is applied to explore notions of cultural capital and cultural empowerment through education in the museum. Throughout the article is concerned with investigating how the individual subject is formed and informed through the narrative. Analogies are drawn with the view that the curriculum may not be a neutral and objective selection of knowledge and that in the same way it is worth investigating this claim to enquire whether institutional presentations of history are equally subjective. If museum education projects are set by curators and education officers to meet certain curriculum requirements then there must be questions raised about the structure of narratives and the process by which they are disseminated. This article is an exploration of these actions with far-reaching applications, to ascertain whether they can successfully promote social justice in education and empower the individual or whether they serve to polarize essentialism and multiculturalism. © 2006 The Author. Journal compilation © 2006 NSEAD/Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
Leinhardt, Gaea and Kevin Crowley, 'Objects of Learning, Objects of Talk: Changing Minds in Museums', In S. Paris ed. Multiple Perspectives on Children’s Object-Centered Learning. (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, <http://www.museumlearning.org/leinhardtcrowley.pdf>.
Leinhardt, G and G Leinhardt, 'Grandparents Speak :Museum Conversations Across Generations', Curator v.49 (2), April 2006, pp.235-252.BMUSE[NMA S 069 CUR].
Leinhardt, G, K Crowley and K Knutson, Learning Conversations in Museums, (Mahwah, N.J. : Lawrence Erlbaum, 2002) , 461 pp.[NMA 069.071 LEI].
Leinhardt, G and K Knutson, Listening in on Museum Conversations, (Walnut Creek, Calif. : Altamira Press, 2004) , 199 pp.[NMA 069 LEI].
Lindauer, MA, 'From Salad Bars to Vivid Stories: Four Game Plans for Developing 'Educationally Successful' Exhibitions', Museum Management and Curatorship v.20 (1), 2005, pp.41-55.From Scopus [accessed 26 September 2006]
This paper addresses the challenge among exhibit development team members to agree upon a shared game plan. It argues that the educational aspect of a shared game plan can be articulated in terms of curriculum theories, each of which advocates a particular approach to presenting information, characterizes an ideal relationship between teacher and learner (museum and visitor), and offers a distinct account of educational success. The relevance of four curriculum theories to museum practice is demonstrated by relating each theory to findings from an exhibit evaluation and to extant museum education literature. The overarching purpose of the paper is to introduce curriculum theories as a useful tool for articulating a shared game plan that delineates a coherent relationship among educational objectives, communication style, and criteria for assessing audience outcomes. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Lindemann-Matthies, P and T Kamer, 'The Influence of an Interactive Educational Approach on Visitors' Learning in a Swiss Zoo', Science Education v.90 (2), 2006, pp.296-315.SCOPUS [accessed 26 September 2006]
A new but costly approach to providing visitors of zoos with information on conservation is the presentation of small exhibits by zoo professionals or volunteers. At these "touch tables" visitors can find out about the biology, ecology, and conservation of animals kept in the zoo. We studied the effect of a touch table on visitors' learning in a Swiss zoo (Tierpark Goldau) using an experimental approach. For half of each day, visitors could choose to gain information from labels next to the enclosures and posters. In addition, for the other half of the day visitors could also choose to make use of a touch table on the bearded vulture (Gypaelus barbatus). More than 600 visitors participated in the study. Results revealed that the modern approach was successful. Visitors using the touch table knew more about the biology, ecology, and conservation of bearded vultures, both immediately after their visit to the zoo and two months later. It is suggested that more use be made of touch tables in zoos, museums, visitor centers, and other settings for nature education. © 2005 Wiley Periodicals. Inc.
London Museums Agency, Planning for Learning : A Guide to Developing an Education Policy, (London : London Museums Agency, 2001) , [10] pp.
Martin, LMW, 'An Emerging Research Framework for Studying Informal Learning and Schools', Science Education v.88 (SUPPL. 1), 2004From Scopus [accessed 26 September 2006]
In recognition of the fact that science centers and other informal educational institutions can play a role in the reform of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education, several major research and professional programs are currently underway. This article discusses one such effort, the Center for Informal Learning and Schools (CILS), a collaboration of the Exploratorium, the University of California, Santa Cruz, and King's College, London and the need for a theoretical framework based on sociocultural theory to link discussion of varied efforts characterizing science learning in informal settings. The article discusses two key problematics related to developments in the science education field of the past decade: (1) integrating studies that are undertaken from multiple disciplinary perspectives, namely, science education, developmental psychology, and cultural studies, and (2) characterizing critical properties of informal learning in museums. It reviews work that has been conducted in nonschool settings and, using examples from research conducted by the Center for Informal Learning and Schools, it reviews questions cur rently under investigation. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
McPherson, G, 'Public Memories and Private Tastes: The Shifting Definitions of Museums and their Visitors in the UK', Museum Management and Curatorship v.21 (1), 2006, pp.44-57.From Scopus [accessed 26 September 2006]
There is no doubt that museums now operate in a distinctly different market to those of the past. Rottenberg [Rottenberg, B. (2002). Museums, information and the public sphere. Museum International, 54(4), 21-28] identifies the two major trends in museums in the latter years of the 20th century as being 'the prevalence of a new market-orientated ideology that stressed the importance of revenue generation' and 'the introduction of new technologies that transfixed not only the museum profession, but also the world'. The main impact, which these and other changes have had is the revision of the museum into a setting for recreational experiences [ Foley, M. and McPherson, G. (2000). Museums as leisure. International Journal of Heritage Studies 16(2), 161-174; Stephen, A. (2001). The contemporary museum and leisure: Recreation as a museum function. Museum Management and Curatorship 19(3), 297-308], rather than an educative one. This paper attempts to address some of these shifts in ideology and purpose. The main concern that museums face as they become more 'recreation-focused' is that they will lose what has long been believed to be their 'integrity', and thus stray from their original missions to preserve and educate, with critics suggesting that they may simply become arenas for pleasure rather than education. This paper concludes that in future, it seems inevitable that museums will become 'hybrid places, combining recreation and learning, allowing visitors diversions from the intense stimuli of strolling through galleries and viewing multitudinous objects' [Kotler, N. (2004). New ways of experiencing culture: the role of museums and marketing implications. Museum Management and Curatorship, 19(4), 417-425], with entertainment and education working together to fulfil the museum's mission. Museums need not be afraid of using entertainment, but should embrace it as a tool for learning, potentially attracting a wider and more diversified public. © 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Moffat, H and V Woollard, Museum and Gallery Education : A Manual of Good Practice, (Walnut Creek, Calif. : Altamira Press, 2004) , 197 pp.
'Musing on Learning', In Musing on Learning, Anonymous Australian Museum <http://www.amonline.net.au/amarc/conferences/musing.htm>.
Packer J, 'Motivations for Learning : Visitors' Perceptions of the Educational Element in Leisure Experiences.', In P Singh : E McWilliam ed. Designing Educational Research : Theories, Methods and Practices . (Flaxton Qld: Post Pressed, 2001), pp.115-126.
Educational leisure settings such as museums, national parks, wildlife centres and heritage sites, play an important role in society by providing educational experiences for adults in leisure time. Previous studies have demonstrated that the educational element can and does contribute both to visitors' learning and their enjoyment of the leisure experience. However, for many visitors the educational aspects of the experience are secondary to other aspects such as entertainment, social interaction or relaxation. Many do not approach leisure activities with a deliberate intention to learn and may not be willing to devote mental effort to learning, preferring to approach their visit in a 'mindless' or mentally passive fashion.
Packer, J and R Ballantyne, 'Motivational Factors and the Visitor Experience: A Comparison of Three Sites', Curator v.45 (3), July 2002, pp.183-198.[NMA S 069 CUR]
The importance of learning to museum visitors and the unique opportunities and challenges of the museum in relation to other educational leisure settings are discusses. The authors argue that the study of motivational factors might contribute to the development of a common theoretical foundation for interpretation in museums and other informal learning settings.'
Packer, J and R Ballantyne, 'Solitary Vs. Shared: Exploring the Social Dimension of Museum Learning', Curator v.48 (2), April 2005, pp.177-192.[NMA S 069 CUR]
...This study explores quantitative and qualitative differences in the nature and outcomes of solitary and shared learning experiences in a museum context. ...’
Piscitelli, B and D Anderson, 'Young Children's Perspectives of Museum Settings and Experiences', Museum Management and Curatorship v.19 (3), , pp.269-282.
Piscitelli, B and D Anderson, 'Young Children's Learning in Museum Settings', Visitor Studies Today v.3 (3), 2000, pp.3-10. <http://eab.ed.qut.edu.au/activities/projects/museum/papers/Vis_Stud_2000.doc>.
Rennie, LJ and GF Williams, 'Adults' Learning about Science in Free-Choice Settings', International Journal of Science Education v.28 (8), 2006, pp.871-893.From Scopus [accessed 26 September 2006]
This paper synthesizes findings from three studies to answer a general question: What do casual, adult visitors learn about science from their science-related experiences in free-choice settings? Specifically we asked whether there are changes in how people think about science in their daily lives, the nature and use of scientific knowledge, and its communication by scientists. The three studies involved samples of visitors to an interactive science centre, visitors to a traditional natural history museum, and attendees at a series of public lectures, each given by an expert scientist in human genetics. Pretest and post-test data collected by parallel questionnaires indicated that, despite the different nature of their experience in the three different settings, participants became more positive about the value of science and the work done by scientists and their ability to communicate with the public. At all venues, however, participants became less scientific in their thinking about the nature of scientific knowledge, becoming more likely to believe it to be infallible. The consistency of these findings was surprising, and participants' changed views about the nature of scientific knowledge were unexpected. Possible explanations for theses outcomes were suggested in terms of participants' reasons for attending the venue, the nature of their engagement, and the non-controversial ways in which the exhibitions and lectures were structured. The findings suggest that the educational role of free-choice settings should be considered carefully, particularly with regard to the representation of science. © 2006 Taylor & Francis.
Rogers, R, 'Whose Space? : Creating the Environments for Learning', In Lang,C, J Reeve and V Woollard eds. The Responsive Museum : Working with Audiences in the Twenty-First Century, (Aldershot, Hants, England: Ashgate, 2006), .
Rounds, J, 'Identity and Process - Doing Identity Work in Museums', Curator v.49 (2), April 2006, pp.193-209.[NMA S 069 CUR].
Schaller, DT and S Allison-Bunnell, 'Practicing what we Teach: How Learning Theory can Guide Development of Online Educational Activities', In Museums and the Web 2003, Anonymous Charlotte, 2003), 18 pp. <http://www.archimuse.com/mw2003/papers/schaller/schaller.html/> [accessed 10 May 2007]
Transplanting learning theory from the classroom or museum environment to the Web poses unique challenges. This paper reviews several theories of learning and explores ways that the authors have tried to incorporate them into the development and design process for interactive Web sites. Constructivism underlies much educational practice in museums and is the basis for all of the learning theories surveyed in this paper. Each of these, however, clarifies, expands upon, or revises the notion of constructivism in ways that can help Web designers better conceptualize and execute their projects. (Contains 22 references.)
Sierra, JL and others, 'From Research Resources to Learning Objects: Process Model and Virtualization Experiences', Educational Technology and Society v.9 (3), 2006, pp.56-68.From Scopus [accessed 26 September 2006]
Typically, most research and academic institutions own and archive a great amount of objects and research related resources that have been produced, used and maintained over long periods of time by different types of domain experts (e.g. lecturers and researchers). Although the potential educational value of these resources is very high, this potential may largely be underused due to severe accessibility and manipulability constraints. The visualization of these resources, i.e. their representation as reusable digital learning objects that can be integrated in an e-learning environment, would allow the full exploitation of all their educational potential. In this paper we describe the process model that we have followed during the virtualization of the objects and research resources owned by two academic museums at the Complutense University of Madrid (Spain). In the context of this model we also summarize the main aspects of these experiences in virtualization.
Soren, BJ, 'Best Practices in Creating Quality Online Experiences for Museum Users', Museum Management and Curatorship v.20 (2), 2005, pp.131-148.From Scopus [accessed 26 September 2006]
The Canadian Heritage Information Network commissioned a research study on quality in online experiences in order to ensure that the Virtual Museum of Canada (VMC), launched in 2001 to provide a strong online presence for Canadian museums, retains some consistency through its content and interface. The research goals were to determine what factors define 'quality' in online museum projects and how to measure this quality through a thorough analysis of existing online museum products in the VMC portal. This article focuses on how development teams attempted to engage users of eight VMC products. The 2002 statistics for these products indicated higher user engagement. Interviews with project managers and multimedia developers explored successes and challenges in developing products, and potential best practices for producing quality in online experiences for VMC users. Five factors frame the discussion of findings. Expectations for user engagement, as well as objectives, outcomes, and success indicators were important factors at the outset of the project. Critical factors during and after Web site development included the needs of intended and other interested audiences, and opportunities for reflection and evaluation following the launch of the product. Finally, building an exhibit that meets partners' interests and changing needs contributes to a project's lasting impact. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Styles C, 'Dialogic Learning in Museum Space.', Australian Journal of Adult Learning v.42 (2), July 2002, pp.169-191.
At this historical juncture, many museums articulate their cultural function in terms of dialogue rather than instruction, and develop innovative educational programs to attract diverse communities of visitors. What is understated in recent museum theory and practice is the fact that exhibitions are a fundamental form of (informal) learning in museums. In order to realise their rhetoric about facilitating dialogue among communities, museums need to implement techniques for responsive or self-reflexive representation in their exhibition spaces. Models of best practice in this regard remain rare, but the author here describes one exhibition that engaged her in a dialogue, and offers suggestions for how the Australian War Memorial could engage visitors more actively in the process of interpreting the site and the collection. [Author abstract]
vom Lehn, D, C Heath and J Hindmarsh, 'Exhibiting Interaction: Conduct and Collaboration in Museums and Galleries', Symbolic Interaction v.24 (2), 2001, pp.189-216.
A visitor’s experience of an exhibit is greatly affected by the social environment and the relationship between the exhibit and other objects within the physical space. The other exhibits encountered before and after, the behavior of the visitor’s companions, and the behavior of strangers within proximity all have strong effects on how the visitor engages with, and draws meaning from, the exhibit. The authors advocate the use of videotape along with field observations as a method for evaluating important aspects of visitor behavior. The authors summarize the implications for museum exhibit design and visitor studies.
Examples
Foster J R, 'Hothouse : Learning and Teaching Styles Across the Art Museum, Teacher Education and Schools.', In 'Educational Research, Risks and Dilemmas : NZARE/AARE Conference, Australian Association for Research in Education (AARE). Conference (2003 : Auckland NZ), New Zealand Association for Research in Education (NZARE). Conference (2003 : Auckland NZ) and NZARE/AARE Conference (2003 : Auckland NZ)edsAuckland, New Zealand ([Auckland]: New Zealand Association for Research in Education, 2003) <http://www.aare.edu.au/03pap/ros03665.pdf>
The main aim of the 'Hothouse Art Appreciation Project' is to explore teaching and learning strategies in the design of materials and activities around the experience of students' encounter with art works. The project elucidates how different types of audiences received and processed ideas and meaning about a group of artworks and has wider application to the understanding of learning and teaching styles across the broader visual culture. As the theoretical under-pinning of the design, this paper presents several significant aspects of the work of educational research by the educator and philosopher Elliot Eisner.
Groundwater-Smith S, '
Evidence Based Practice in School Education: Some Lessons from Learning in Museums', In Why Learning? Seminar Co-Presented by the Australian Museum Audience Research Centre and the University of Technology, Sydney, Anonymous Australian Museum <http://www.amonline.net.au/amarc/pdf/conferences/susangs.pdf> [accessed 10 May 2007].Groundwater-Smith S and Kelly L, 'Seeing Practice Anew : Improving Learning at the Museum.', In 'Educational Research, Risks and Dilemmas : NZARE/AARE Conference 2003, Conference (2003 : Auckland NZ), Conference (2003 : Auckland NZ) and NZARE/AARE Conference (2003 : )edsAuckland NZ (Auckland NZ: Australian Association for Research in Education (AARE). New Zealand Association for Research in Education (NZARE)., 2003) <http://www.aare.edu.au/03pap/gro03195.pdf> [accessed 31 August 2006]
A joint project undertaken with the Australian Museum and the Coalition of Knowledge Building Schools was designed to examine ways in which the museum's presentation of its collection and special exhibitions may assist or inhibit learning. The project has two phases. First education staff and interpretive officers of the museum have collected photographic images which they see to relate to learning in the museum, constructed them as conceptual postersand discussed them in small groups. Then students and their teachers have engaged in school based learning workshops and visits to the museum,and repeated the poster making process. The posters from both groups have been compared and contrasted and formed the basis for a discussion regarding ways in which the museum might better support learning.
Hirsch, JS, LH Silverman and Museum Education Roundtable, Transforming Practice : Selections from the Journal of Museum Education, 1992-1999, (Washington, D.C. : Museum Education Roundtable, 2000) , 346 pp.[NMA 069.071 TRA].
Hooper-Greenhill, E, 'Exhibitions and Interpretation: Museum Pedogogy and Cultural Change.', In Hooper-Greenhill,E ed. Museums and the Interpretation of Visual Culture, (London ; New York : Routledge, 2000), pp.124-150.[NMA 069.01 HOO].
Packer J, 'Motivational factors and the experience of learning in educational leisure settings.', (unpublished PhD thesis,Queensland University of Technology, 2004) <http://adt.library.qut.edu.au/adt-qut/public/adt-QUT20050208.101214/index.html>, in Australian Digital Theses [accessed 10 May 2007]
This research investigates the impact of motivational factors on the experience of learning in educational leisure settings. Motivational factors are considered in terms of four components - personal goals, capability beliefs, context beliefs and situational incentives. The experience of learning is considered in terms of visitors' perceptions of the experience, rather than objective measures of learning outcomes, as the experience itself is seen as the desired outcome of the visit. Visitors to six different educational leisure settings in South East Queensland were invited to participate in the research, including a museum, an art gallery, a wildlife centre, an aquarium, and guided tours of natural and cultural heritage sites. It is concluded that the characteristics of learning in educational leisure settings contribute to a synergy between the educational and entertainment aspects of the experience. Situational factors are more important than personal factors in motivating visitors to engage in and experience this type of learning, impling that sites have a reasonable degree of control over the motivational factors that influence visitor engagement in learning.
Styles C A, 'An other place : The Australian War Memorial in a Freirean Framework.', (unpublished PhD thesis,Australian National University, 2000) <http://thesis.anu.edu.au/public/adt-ANU20010904.111335/>, in Australian Digital Theses
In this thesis the author produces a detailed evaluation of a museum's informal learning program; and demonstrates the potential value of adult education theory and practice for enacting museums' commitment to dialogic communication and community-building. To investigate the value of adult education praxis for museums, she considers the Australian War Memorial's signifying practice - the site and its exhibitions - as a program for informal learning. She conducts her analysis according to Ira Shor's (Freirean) method for engaging students in an extraordinary re-experience of an ordinary object. Shor's program calls for students to investigate the object through three stages of description, diagnosis and reconstruction. Respectively, she testifies to her initial experience of the Memorial's program as a visitor, analyses its signification in national, international and historical contexts, and imagines an alternative means of signifying Australia's war memory. The resulting account constitutes a record of her learning process and a critical and constructive evaluation of the Memorial as a site for informal learning. In a museum that hosted a dialogic program, the exhibitions would invite evaluative responses that staff are otherwise at pains to generate. Concurrently, visitors would benefit because they would be engaging in a more critical and constructive learning process. In addition, the museum would be enacting the principle of dialogic communication that underpins the project of community-building.
Wilkinson, S, S Clive and J Blain, Developing Cross Curricular Learning in Museums and Galleries, (Stoke-on-Trent : Trentham, 2001) , 160 pp.[NMA 069.15 WIL].
Tools
Hatala, M and G Richards, 'Pool, Pond and Splash: A Canadian Infrastructure for Learning Object Repositories', In Proceedings of the 5th IASTED Int.Conference on Computers and Advanced Technology in Education (CATE 2002), Anonymous Cancun, Mexico IASTED, 2002), 54–59 pp.
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